Author Anika Hoybjerg discusses the importance of selecting meaningful goals.
By Anika Hoybjerg, PhD, EdS, BCBA-D, LBA and Casey Barron, BCBA, LBA
As professionals in applied behavior analysis and related fields, it is our greatest privilege to work with those in our care. We have a responsibility to use our time, resources, knowledge, and skills to provide the most meaningful outcomes possible for our clients. Oftentimes, decisions about care are made solely by professionals based on an individual’s diagnosis, assessments, and characteristics of behavior. However, while the professionals in these fields have expertise regarding behavior, they are not the ones who are impacted by the treatment they provide day to day or over the years. In the article “I Can Identify Saturn But I Can’t Brush My Teeth,” Ayres and colleagues (2011) discussed the importance of clinicians selecting meaningful goals that have a significant influence on their client’s independence and quality of life.
Assessments are tools that can help guide and shape what skills are worked on during treatment, but they should not be used to mold individuals to fit the criteria of all the skills listed within it. Assessments are not just about mastering goals; it is about using a tool to develop and implement a plan to help individuals lead a satisfying life with steady improvements over time. Professionals should strive to truly know their clients, their strengths, and the areas of need that will help support their growth. Goals addressed during treatment are selected because they are necessary, important, functional, and lead to meaningful outcomes for the individual and their family. Attempting to determine what skills are most important and will have the greatest impact can be a difficult task. Areas of importance can be done by interviewing and involving clients and stakeholders, collaborating with other professionals, building on an individual’s strengths and interests, building on skills that will lead to increased quality of life or independence, and giving the individual access to more opportunities that are enjoyable and preferred.
Author Casey Barron shares an example of how selecting more meaningful goals increases client buy-in
As mentioned above, one method for selecting meaningful goals may include interviewing and collaborating with the client you are working with (when appropriate), interviewing parents and caregivers, and collaborating with other professionals who work with the client. The Levels of Optimum Performance (LOOP) interviews are structured interviews that can be used to interview each of these stakeholders. The LOOP has questions related to the 20 domains of The Meaningful Outcomes Treatment and Assessment Scales (MOTAS), and provides a scale for the interviewee to rank how important it is to work on each domain. The information and scores from these interviews can be utilized to select treatment domains, allowing a professional to assess further in these domains and determine which skills are needed to help the individual achieve this goal.
Another important consideration when selecting meaningful goals is to take into account your learner’s current strengths, interests, and goals. This can be applied across a variety of teaching domains. For example, if you are teaching an individual to label animals and they love looking at books with mythical creatures, include labeling dragons, unicorns, and trolls into their program. This gives the individual a way to label things they are interested in and may give them ways to communicate and connect with others. There is time to work on building other common language skills, however focusing on what is important to the client should also be a priority.
Additionally, skills that allow for an individual to gain independence is a highly important component of providing treatment. Determining what independence looks like for an individual is going to be highly individualized and may change over time. For individuals who may be living with family members into adulthood, making their own meals, dressing themselves, participating in community activities, and engaging in interactions with family members may be some of the most important domains to work on. In contrast, individuals who may leave the home and live with roommates and have a job may work on skills related to gaining employment, time management, and perspective-taking skills. Independence may look different for each person, but by collaborating with clients, families, and professionals, setting high expectations, teaching in compassionate ways, problem-solving, and continuing to push the client to grow, we can aid these individuals in becoming more self-reliant.
Finally, it is important to consider goals that are going to give individuals opportunities to access activities, interactions, and people that they enjoy. Teaching communication, social skills, leisure activities, and community skills should not be taught only for them to accompany others on their errands or activities, but they should also be taught so the individual can participate in their preferred hobbies, spend time with others they care about in a variety of settings, and participate in other desired activities.
Anika Hoybjerg, PhD, EdS, BCBA-D, LBA Dr. Hoybjerg is the CEO, founder, and owner of Autism & Behavioral Intervention (ABI) (a clinic-based ABA center in Draper, UT), ABA Education Center, and Integrity Billing. In addition to founding and leading these companies, Anika has worked in public schools and in private sectors with children and families for over 20 years. Anika is a Doctoral level Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA-D) and a Licensed School Psychologist. Anika has a Bachelor’s degree in Human Development, a Master’s Degree in Curriculum and Instruction with an Emphasis in Autism, a Master’s degree in Human Exceptionality, an Ed.S in School Psychology, and a Ph.D. in Applied Behavior Analysis. Anika is currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Neuroscience and Trauma. Anika has presented at regional, national, and international conferences on a variety of topics relating to kindness in ABA services, autism, collaboration, and assessments.
Casey Barron, BCBA, LBA Casey is a practicing Board Certified Behavior Analyst in Salt Lake City, Utah. She has been working in ABA since early 2015, spending several years first working as an RBT then as a BCBA in academic, home, and clinical settings. In addition to her work as a practicing BCBA, Casey works as the clinical director of an ABA center that has supported hundreds of children and where she oversees and trains staff members and future BCBAs. Since becoming a BCBA, Casey has presented at regional and international conferences on case studies from her own clinical practice.
By Stephanny Freeman, PhD, Kristen Hayashida, MEd, BCBA, and Dr. Tanya Paparella, originally posted by Different Roads to Learning, September 7, 2017
Most adults think of toy play as a natural part of childhood. When my daughter was born, we were showered with plush animals, tea sets, and dress up clothes for her to use in play. But what happens when the child does not find toy play to be natural?
Many children on the autism spectrum use toys non-functionally or repetitively. When I ask parents of children with ASD to tell me about their child’s play they often say “he doesn’t know how to use toys appropriately!” They then tell me about how the child may spin the wheels on the car while staring at the rotating objects. They tell me about the specific scripts the child uses to carry out a routine with their toys and subsequent tantrums if the routine is disrupted. Parents notice how this deficit in play impacts their ability to engage with peers or occupy their free time appropriately.
Symbolic play occurs when the child uses objects or actions to represent other objects or actions. For example, a child using a doll as their baby and rocking the doll to sleep is an act of symbolic play. The doll is not alive, but the child is representing a baby. This skill is a core deficit in children with ASD. This means that they do not “naturally” or “easily” acquire the ability to use toys to represent other things. Development of symbolic play is crucial in early development and is tied to numerous subsequent skills:
Language
Symbolic play is highly correlated to language development. This means that the better the child’s ability to play representationally, the better the child’s language skills. There is also emerging evidence to support symbolic play as having a causal relationship to language.
Social Development
As neurotypical children continue their learning about symbolic play and through symbolic play, children with ASD often struggle to relate to their peers and understand their play schemes. Some children with ASD may only engage peers in physical play (instead of symbolic play) or they may end up playing alone using their familiar play scripts.
Perspective-taking
Symbolic play allows the child early opportunities to take on the perspective of another being. If a child pretends to be a pirate, they being to talk and think of things a pirate might want/do. This early practice with perspective-taking allows the child to use this skill when interacting with peers and adults.
Meta-cognition and Problem Solving Skills
Meta-cognition is the ability to think about one’s own thinking. This is an essential skill when solving problems and planning one’s time. During play kids plan, organize and cognitively process through obstacles and mishaps with their toys.
Emotional Development
Through symbolic play, children can practice expressing emotion through the scenes they create. There is also some evidence suggesting that this early practice contributes to emotion understanding and empathy.
Clearly, children need play for growth and development. However, for children with ASD the development of symbolic play may be difficult and, even thought of as WORK!
Given the numerous skills that come out of symbolic play, we urge parents of children with ASD to consider the importance of toy play. Dedicate time and effort to engage your child in symbolic play. It is usually not easy at first! It might have been decades since you picked up an action figure and used him to fight off bad guys, but practice with your child.
Parents know that it is part of their job to help their child learn to read and do basic math. They would not let their child escape those tasks because they are hard. Please consider PLAY to be just as important and necessary for the child’s development. Even if it is work at first, insist the child play with you and in time, improvements may come not only in toy play but also in so many other key areas of development.
References
Jarrold, C., Boucher, J., & Smith, P. (1993). Symbolic play in autism: A review. Journal ofAutism and Developmental Disorders, 23(2), 281-307.
Ungerer, J.A. & Sigman, M. (1981). Symbolic play and language comprehension in autistic children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 318-337.
About the Authors
Dr. Stephanny Freeman is a clinical professor at UCLA, a licensed clinical psychologist, and Co-Directs the Early Childhood Partial Hospitalization Program (ECPHP). For 20 years, she has educated children with ASD and other exceptionalities as a teacher, studied interventions for social emotional development, and designed curriculum and behavior plans in school and clinic settings.
Kristen Hayashida is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst at the UCLA Early Childhood Partial Hospitalization Program (ECPHP). For the last 10 years she has served as a therapist, researcher and educator of children and families living with autism spectrum disorder through the treatment of problem behavior.
Dr. Tanya Paparella is a specialist in the field of autism having spent more than 20 years in intervention and research in autism. She is an Associate Clinical Professor in the Division of Child Psychiatry at UCLA, a licensed clinical psychologist, and Co-Director of UCLA’s Early Childhood Partial Hospitalization Program (ECPHP), an internationally recognized model treatment program for young children on the autism spectrum.
-Authors Casey Barron and Anika Hoybjerg introduce the MOTAS.
By Anika Hoybjerg, PhD, EdS, BCBA-D, LBA and Casey Barron, BCBA, LBA
When working with individuals with autism or other related disabilities, it is common to use an assessment to measure current skill levels against typical developmental norms, or to measure skill acquisition over periods of time. There are several assessments that are commonly used, some of which are The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP), The Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS), The Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS), and Essentials for Living (EFL).
These assessments have paved the way for individuals to receive individualized treatment, give a starting place of where to begin teaching, and record progress over time.
However, while useful, these guides are not comprehensive across the lifespan, and are often used when it is no longer age or developmentally appropriate. Additionally, the scoring within these assessments (with the exception of EFL) does not account for generalization and maintenance of skills, which can make it difficult to accurately measure an individual’s true progress. The Meaningful Outcomes Treatment and Assessment Scale (MOTAS) was designed with some of these limitations in mind and seeks to address these needs.
Meaningful Outcomes Beyond Early Intervention
The MOTAS is appropriate for individuals ranging from age 5 through adulthood. It contains nearly 1,200 goals across 20 domains to comprehensively address skills that an individual needs to communicate wants and needs, gain independence, increase quality of life, build relationships, gain employment, and pursue opportunities of their choosing. The skills and domains were selected intentionally to ensure that any time spent on goals from this assessment would lead to increased opportunities for the individual. To ensure that no goal or domain is worked on to just “check a box” or fill a grid, a “Meaningful Outcome” has been provided for each domain and subdomain in the assessment, describing why that specific set of skills is important, and what can be gained by working on and addressing those skills.
Domains are comprehensive in covering skills for an individual who is just starting to learn these skills, and become progressively more complex. Additionally, nearly every domain includes goals related to safety, problem-solving, and flexibility.
Unique, Easy-to-Use Scoring
In addition to comprehensive skills and domains, the MOTAS has a unique scoring system that measures whether an individual has gained independence in a skill, whether they have generalized the skill to multiple environments and multiple people, and whether they have maintained the skill over time. The scoring system is easy to use while still offering a comprehensive look at the client’s progress:
0 – Not applicable
1 – Pre-skill: Has not yet demonstrated the skill
2 – Prompted: Completes the skill with prompts
3 – Independent: Independently engages in the skill without prompting
4 – Generalized: Completes the skill with multiple people and in multiple environments
5 – Maintained: Completes the skill without daily teaching and instruction, while also maintaining generalization of the skill (i.e., it is truly mastered)
Focus on Individualized Care
The MOTAS should be completely individualized to the person you are working with. This is highlighted in the instructions and throughout the assessment. Structured interviews were created to be used with the MOTAS in order to create a treatment plan that is unique to the client, and meets the needs of the client, family, caregivers, and other professionals. These interviews are called the Levels of Optimum Performance (LOOP) Interviews. Three versions of this interview are included in each booklet. One interview is designed to be used for caregivers, another with other professionals who work with the individual (such as an occupational therapist or a speech-language pathologist), and the third interview is designed to be used with the client themselves (the LOOP-C). The LOOP-C was designed in collaboration with multiple autistic individuals. They provided feedback and insight on the phrasing of questions, whether questions should be included or omitted, and provided suggestions on how to conduct the interview in a way that is comfortable for the individual being interviewed.
Working with the DSM-5 and Insurance
Another defining feature of the MOTAS is the inclusion of the diagnostic criteria for Autism Spectrum Disorder from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders- Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Professionals who provide services to individuals with autism may be required to submit authorizations and treatment plans to insurance companies, many of which require that treatment goals align with the diagnostic criteria for autism. By providing this criteria within the assessment, professionals can be sure to align goals with this criteria, saving time for both the professional and the payor.
As with any assessment, implementers hold an incredible responsibility in selecting the appropriate assessment for their client. Using the MOTAS is not simply about gathering data or observing behaviors; it’s about understanding the unique way to meet an individual’s needs, how their future is shaped, and increasing opportunities for independence.
About the Authors
Anika Hoybjerg, PhD, EdS, BCBA-D, LBA Dr. Hoybjerg is the CEO, founder, and owner of Autism & Behavioral Intervention (ABI) (a clinic-based ABA center in Draper, UT), ABA Education Center, and Integrity Billing. In addition to founding and leading these companies, Anika has worked in public schools and in private sectors with children and families for over 20 years. Anika is a Doctoral level Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA-D) and a Licensed School Psychologist. Anika has a Bachelor’s degree in Human Development, a Master’s Degree in Curriculum and Instruction with an Emphasis in Autism, a Master’s degree in Human Exceptionality, an Ed.S in School Psychology, and a Ph.D. in Applied Behavior Analysis. Anika is currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Neuroscience and Trauma. Anika has presented at regional, national, and international conferences on a variety of topics relating to kindness in ABA services, autism, collaboration, and assessments.
Casey Barron, BCBA, LBA Casey is a practicing Board Certified Behavior Analyst in Salt Lake City, Utah. She has been working in ABA since early 2015, spending several years first working as an RBT then as a BCBA in academic, home, and clinical settings. In addition to her work as a practicing BCBA, Casey works as the clinical director of an ABA center that has supported hundreds of children and where she oversees and trains staff members and future BCBAs. Since becoming a BCBA, Casey has presented at regional and international conferences on case studies from her own clinical practice.
By: Different Roads to Learning, Originally published February 14, 2019
Unemployment rates in the autism community are alarming, but the number of individuals entering the workforce only continues to grow. This presents an overwhelming challenge for special educators tasked with preparing learners for what is often an uncertain future. Vocational training is essential as learners with autism approach the transition to adulthood. With this in mind, Nassau Suffolk Services for Autism (NSSA) introduced The Salad Shoppein the fall of 2017.
The curriculum was developed by Kathryn Reres and Rebecca Chi, devoted special educators determined to ensure dignified and purposeful futures for the eight young adult students in their classroom. The focus was to create a program that would provide functional tasks for each learner based on their individual skills, interests and IEP goals. The result was an innovative vocational training curriculum that highlights the strengths of each participant, introduces new skills into their everyday lives and serves as a profitable social enterprise.
The Salad Shoppe model requires multiple steps to be taken over the course of two days, including: Tracking and counting money, taking inventory, creating shopping lists, purchasing, food preparation, converting a customer’s order form to food assembly, delivery and clean up. This comprehensive list ensures that every learner has the opportunity to perform a task that is meaningful and functional to them. (The staff at NSSA are reaping the benefits too! Fresh, healthy, personally-delivered lunches each week have been a huge hit.)
In partnership with Different Roads to Learning, the creative teachers who designed The Salad Shoppe for NSSA are sharing their expertise with special educators everywhere. The published curriculum will allow teachers to implement The Salad Shoppe in a way that will best function for the learners they serve. Now more than ever, there is a crucial need to provide young adults with autism with the tools they will need to take on the competitive workforce. The Salad Shoppe is a cutting-edge curriculum that has opened new doors for educators, learners and parents and will continue to change the landscape of vocational training.
Developed by Kathryn Reres & Rebecca Chi, with illustrations by Brian Mannion, in partnership with NSSA and Different Roads to Learning
One of the core characteristics of autism spectrum disorder is an abnormal approach to social skills. The DSM specifically uses the language “persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts.” While this may seem straightforward, social skills are an incredibly complex concept to dive into. There are considerations like culture, age, status, and personal preference that all contribute to how people choose to interact in our social world.
Social skills are also incredibly important! Being able to effectively interact with the world around you impacts virtually every other aspect of life. When we’re thinking about teaching people social skills, there can be a lot of pressure to get it right. Let’s take a look at some recommendations to help re-imagine teaching social skills from a neurodiversity-affirming perspective.
Ways to teach social skills in ways that are affirming:
Include the client in decision making. We might teach someone a social rule and the impact that it might have to not engage with that social rule. Then we can help that individual think about times when it might be important to follow that rule and times when it is less important. Small talk is a great example of a social norm that may not always be necessary, but can be a useful skill in the right circumstances.
Lead with consciousness about mental health. Self-image can be so challenging, especially when you’re closely examining how people interact with each other. It can feel alienating to know that you’re not clicking socially and that there’s some secret code that everyone else seems to know. Be kind!
It’s better to have one really good friend than 10 friends who don’t actually really like you. Prioritize quality relationships and helping your client find people who appreciate them for who they are instead of helping them fit in as a less authentic version of themselves.
Ways to teach social skills that are not affirming:
Over-emphasis on social scripts. Social scripts serve a function in a number of specific instances. However, genuine social skills come from a place of authenticity. Be conscientious about when they are useful, and when they might actually get in the way.
Forcing specific leisure skills on someone because of their age, gender, etc. It can be useful to have hobbies in common with the peers around you. However, if it’s not a genuine interest, it is going to be difficult to use that hobby to develop genuine friendships anyway.
Over-emphasis on the reduction of quirky behaviors in the interest of someone “fitting in.” It is true that sometimes certain behaviors can be off-putting in public and may impact someone’s ability to seamlessly navigate a social environment. However, this should not be the primary focus of a social skills program.
These strategies are just the tip of the iceberg. Autistic individuals have been providing a lot of feedback to therapists in recent decades about what supports feel useful and which ones feel alienating. As you continue to learn about social skills programming, I encourage you to learn directly from the people who are receiving the therapy. Happy programming!
About the Author
Nahoma Presberg, MS BCBA NYS-LBA, is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. Nahoma obtained their master’s degree at the University of Rochester in Human Development. They have been working with clients in their homes for the past 6 years but has over a decade of experience supporting children with developmental disabilities. Nahoma is passionate about neurodiversity affirming care and thoughtful programming that helps every client thrive.
There is a common misconception that individuals with special needs require a slower pace of instruction. While they may require a slower pace through a curriculum, this does not mean that individual lessons should be taught at a slower pace. In fact, slowing the pace of instruction not only wastes precious instructional time, it may increase the occurrence of problem behaviors.
Higbee (2009) writes that “appropriately paced instruction helps students to maintain attention to the instructor and instructional materials. Though student attention can be lost when instruction is happening too rapidly, it is most often lost when the pace of instruction is not rapid enough” (p. 20).
So how can you maintain a fast pace of instruction that is appropriate for your student? Here are some things to consider:
Prepare! Set out your materials in such a way that they are easy to access quickly. I keep all the mastered skills on index cards so I can easily add maintenance questions into instruction. Organization is often the simplest way to increase efficiency in your session.
Take data. You want to increase attention and decrease problem behaviors. Try different paces of instruction and measure the behaviors you are wanting to change. For instance, if I have a student who is often grabbing for my shirt during a session, I may try a pace of instruction that includes 15 questions each minute, then try a pace of 20 questions per minute, another of 25 per minute. Next, I will compare the rates of grabbing for my shirt with each pace of instruction. Remember, these aren’t 15 questions for the target skill; some mastered skills will be intermixed.
Record a session. By taking video of yourself working with a child, you may see opportunities for increasing efficiency on your own. You may also observe specific times at which problem behaviors tend to increase, then be able to target those specifically. For instance, perhaps problem behaviors occur when you turn to write data in a binder, but didn’t recognize that pattern until you watched a recording later.
Use reinforcement effectively. Usually, pace of instruction in and of itself will not change behavior. Instead, pair it with reinforcement and be systematic with how you implement reinforcement. We’ve talked about reinforcement here on the blog a lot, so you can read about that in more detail here.
If possible, get input from supervisors or the individual you are working with. Supervisors may be able to observe your session and provide insight on how to increase your pace of instruction. And the individual you are working with may be communicating that they are bored through misbehavior, stating “I’m bored,” or nonvocal behaviors such as yawning. This may be an indication that you need to provide more challenging material or increase the pace of instruction.
REFERENCES
Higbee, T. (2009). Establishing the prerequisites for normal language. In R. A. Rehfeldt, Y. Barnes-Holmes, & S.C. Hayes (Eds.), Derived relational responding applications for learners with autism and other developmental disabilities: A progressive guide to change (7-24). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.
About the Author
Sam is an ABA provider for students ages 3-15 in NYC. Working in education for twelve years with students with Autism Spectrum Disorders and other developmental delays, Sam utilizes strategies for achieving a multitude of academic, behavior, and social goals. She is also an assistant professor in the ABA program at The Sage Colleges
Many of us have heard these terms used interchangeably, but they have some important differences! Generally, we can agree that both are important… but how do we assess consent and assent?
Defining the Terms
First things first: Consent, in a basic sense, is the explicit permission for something to happen or an agreement to do something. It is most often used in legal and ethical contexts. Sometimes, consent is not able to be given by the person being cared for and must instead be given by a caretaker.
Assent, on the other hand, is a general agreement to participate. It is not limited to a verbal confirmation, but instead consists of all the verbal and nonverbal communication that could be part of an agreement (or lack thereof). Consent and assent are sometimes used interchangeably, although the difference is important.
An example of these two concepts may be a child whose parents have given consent for him to play on the playground. The child also confirmed that they would like to go outside and play; however, once the child goes outside, he hovers near the classroom door and avoids the equipment and other children. We can see in this example that while consent was secured, the child did not assent to participating. This could be for a whole host of reasons: he decided he didn’t like the heat, he misunderstood what was going to happen outside, he didn’t want to disappoint his friends. The critical element here is that we acknowledge the importance of both.
Consent and Assent in Action
In a working relationship, consent starts with a document called “informed consent.” This will include what to expect from this intervention, risks and benefits, different procedures that may be used, statements of confidentiality, and who can be included in the treatment. There may be other elements, but the goal is to make sure that everyone is on the same page for what treatment can look like. Assent is not typically included in an “informed consent” document, but is no less important.
Consent and assent should be continually assessed. How often this assessment is done formally should be included in the informed consent document; it should also be reviewed whenever a goal is achieved or the treatment plan is changed. Assent may look differently to each individual person so strong rapport is important to making sure that assent is honored.
It is important to remember that both consent and assent are necessary in all decisions throughout the day. They are super important for promoting autonomy. This may look like asking a child before touching them. If this is not an option (consider a situation where safety may be at risk), then the child should be informed of what and why an action is taking place without their permission. Close attention should be paid to their reaction and future decisions should be made with as much of their permission as possible.
About the Author
Jeridith Lord is a practicing clinical counselor and a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. Her passions include research in trauma informed care and compassionate care. She has been fortunate enough to present internationally on topics such as compassionate care in first responders, behavioral training for first responders, adherence to ethical guidelines, traumatic impact and mental health collaboration, and advocacy for domestic violence and sexual assault survivors. Jeridith is a third-year PhD student and an adjunct professor at Endicott College and Southern New Hampshire University.
Over the years, I’ve seen several behavior intervention plans written and implemented. Typically, these plans include reinforcement for the desirable behavior, but I see the same mistakes crop up again and again. Here are a few common mistakes in implementing reinforcement to look out for:
Fail to identify individual reinforcers.
Hands down, the most common error I see is identifying specific activities or items as reinforcing. For instance, many people love gummy bears, but they make me want to puke. Presenting me with a gummy bear would not increase my future likelihood of engaging in the appropriate behavior! You must account for individual differences and conduct a preference assessment of your learner, then make a plan based on his or her preferences.
Fade reinforcement too quickly.
Let’s say you’re working with a child named Harold who draws on the walls with crayon. You implement a reinforcement plan in which he earns praise and attention from his parent each time he draws on paper. The first few days it’s implemented, Harold’s rate of drawing on the wall greatly decreases. Everyone claims that his behavior is “fixed” and suddenly the plan for reinforcement is removed… and Harold begins drawing on the wall once more. I see this sort of pattern frequently (and have even caught myself doing it from time to time). After all, it can be easy to forget to reinforce positive behavior. To address this issue, make a clear plan for fading reinforcement, and use tools to help remind you to provide reinforcement for appropriate behavior.
Inconsistent with reinforcement plan.
Harriet is writing consistently in a notebook, to the detriment of her interactions with peers. Her teachers implement a DRO, deciding to provide reinforcement for behavior other than the writing. However, the teachers didn’t notify all the adults working with her of the new plan, so Harriet’s behavior persists in certain environments, such as at recess, allowing her to miss multiple opportunities for more appropriate social interaction. To address this issue, make a clear outline of the environments in which the behavior is occurring and what adults are working in those environments. Ensure that all of the adults on that list are fully aware of the plan and kept abreast of any changes.
Don’t reinforce quickly enough.
This one can be quite challenging, depending on the behavior and the environment. Let’s saying you’re working with a boy named Huck who curses often. You and your team devise a plan to reinforce appropriate language. You decide to offer him tokens that add up to free time at the end of the school day. However, sometimes as you are handing him a token for appropriate language, he curses again right before the token lands in his hand. Though it was unintentional, the cursing was actually reinforced here. Remember that reinforcement should be delivered as close to the desired behavior as possible. To address this issue, consider your environment and materials and make a plan to increase the speed of delivery.
Fail to make a plan to transfer to natural reinforcers.
Ultimately, you don’t want any of these behaviors to change based solely on contrived reinforcement. Making a plan for reinforcement of appropriate behavior is essential, but your ultimate goal is to have the behavior be maintained by naturally occurring reinforcement. To address this issue, the first thing you need to do is identify what that naturally occurring reinforcement might be. For Harold, it might be having his artwork put up in a special place or sharing it with a show and tell. For Harriet it might be the interactions she has with peers on the playground. Once you have identified those reinforcers, you can create a plan for ensuring that the learner contacts those reinforcers over time. This might include pairing the naturally occurring reinforcers with the contrived reinforcers, then fading out the latter.
Ultimately, it’s important to remember that reinforcement is not as simple as it seems. Taking the time to plan on the front end will help with long-term outcomes.
WRITTEN BY SAM BLANCO, PhD, LBA, BCBA
Sam is an ABA provider for students ages 3-15 in NYC. Working in education for twelve years with students with Autism Spectrum Disorders and other developmental delays, Sam utilizes strategies for achieving a multitude of academic, behavior, and social goals. She is also an assistant professor in the ABA program at The Sage Colleges.
You probably get a lot of questions from families about different kinds of interventions, diets, supplements, experimental treatments, etc. It can be stressful to know how to answer these questions. As behavior analysts, we’re experts in behavior science and we’ve been taught to prioritize evidence-based practices for our clients. Does that mean that families should be discouraged from trying different strategies that are outside of behavior science? Of course not (provided those different strategies are safe). It is important that we understand how to integrate and understand these strategies within the context of the support we’re providing.
While behavior analysts can’t provide recommendations about non-behavior analytic interventions, we can support families in trying safe strategies using a scientific approach. We can help the family identify what kinds of outcomes they’re hoping to see and data collection strategies to help understand the impacts. We can help families interpret information and understand what is being marketed to them.
We can utilize the same scientific process with any strategy and help parents make informed decisions about the interventions they’re trying. Let’s go through an example together.
Let’s say that a family comes to you saying they want to try a new dietary supplement, and their pediatrician has already approved its use. You’ve heard of it but don’t know much about it. As far as you know, there isn’t research to demonstrate any benefits for children but no research indicating red flags either. You tell the family that providing advice about supplements is outside of your scope of practice, but you’d love to help them come up with a data collection system to help examine the effects.
This is great time to talk to the family about what their expectations are about the supplement and what they’re hoping will change because of introducing it to their child’s diet. Here are the steps:
Identify the intended outcomes. Help families identify specific behaviors they can track that will be indicators of if the goals are working. Remember, we can’t track happiness but we can help families think about what behaviors their children do to show they are feeling happy.
Develop a data collection system. Remember that this data collection system will be used by the families, not a behavior technician. The simpler and more feasible the structure is for data collection, the more likely you are to get accurate data. In my humble opinion, I would prioritize accurate data over robust data in these instances
Identify some criteria. Talk to the family about what kinds of results they’re looking to see and how they’re going to know whether the supplement is working. What is the timeline for evaluating the data and seeing the progress? What are the numbers we’d need to see in order to consider it a success? What would be the criteria for immediate discontinuation of the supplement?
Collaborate with other providers that support the family. Medical doctors can provide important context about medical considerations and may be able to provide insight on important behaviors to track. School staff can help provide context about how the child is doing at school. Everyone is an important part of the team!
About the Author
Nahoma Presberg, MS BCBA NYS-LBA, is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. Nahoma obtained their master’s degree at the University of Rochester in Human Development. They have been working with clients in their homes for the past 6 years but has over a decade of experience supporting children with developmental disabilities. Nahoma is passionate about neurodiversity affirming care and thoughtful programming that helps every client thrive.
This month’s ASAT feature comes to us from Shira Karpel, MEd, BCBA and Shayna Gaunt, MA, BCBA, How to ABA. To learn more about ASAT, please visit their website at www.asatonline.org. You can also sign up for ASAT’s free newsletter, Science in Autism Treatment, and like them on Facebook!
I am a first-year teacher in a self-contained classroom. I appreciate how data can guide my decision-making and help me better assess progress. Nonetheless, I feel a bit overwhelmed and would welcome some general guidance on what type of data to collect and when.
Thank you for your question. We are happy to hear you are considering data-based decision-making to best assess your students’ progress. As ABA professionals, data collection plays an essential role in making decisions and updating or revising programs based on what the data tells us. However, it is possible to be so consumed with data that it interferes with teaching. How well can a person engage and think on their feet when they are preoccupied with data collection? It can also be challenging to select the right method of data collection to accurately reflect skill progress (or lack thereof). For instance, it may look like a student is not mastering any goals, when, in fact, a different type of data collection method may tell a different story.
Data plays a very important role in the classroom for students who have Individualized Education Plans (IEP). In developing an IEP, goals should be chosen based on assessments, as well as what will be personally meaningful to the student in that setting. Data collection is a vital tool in the classroom. It is necessary to assess a student’s strengths and areas of support which will then inform potential goals. For example, data from an assessment can tell us that a student is currently able to label numbers 1-5 and based on this, we might propose a goal of labeling numbers 1-10. Think about the end goal in observable and measurable terms and then choose a type of data collection that is doable amidst a busy classroom. Then, we will be able to make data-based decisions, share objective assessments of progress and update IEPs accordingly. It all sounds nice but how can we use data without it becoming overwhelming?
We feel strongly that data should only support learning and never impede it. This is why it is important to choose a method of data collection that allows teachers to a) monitor progress, b) be present in the moment, c) engage with their students, and d) remain focused on teaching. Students will learn more from good teaching than from good data. In a classroom, this often means that you would choose methods of data collection that are manageable when teaching a large group.
Let’s review a few of our favorite data-collection methods and their potential applications in the classroom.
Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of responses within a specific period of time. In other words, how many times are you seeing the occurrence of a particular target? Tally counters are a great way to collect frequency data. They are not cumbersome! A tally counter is something you can wear on your finger or waist while you’re teaching and click the counter when you observe a behavior. Frequency is often a common measure for behavior reduction goals, for example reducing the number of times a student elopes from the classroom. Frequency data are often collected as part of toilet training efforts (e.g., successes, accidents, initiations). However, frequency is also a simple measure for a lot of skill acquisition goals. Requesting and spontaneous language are some programs where we may choose a frequency count over any other type of data collection. For example, how many times a student greeted a friend or how many times a student asked for help. There can be creative ways to keep track of frequency, most teachers I work with love to carry around a sticky note and make tallies when they can! These tallies can then get added up at the end of the day and graphed.
Duration
Duration refers to how long the behavior persists. We often take duration data when we want to know how long it takes students to complete specific tasks. We also take duration data when analyzing impeding behavior, like tantrums. How long do they persist? It’s important to include duration data for interfering behavior because it can be an important measure of progress; frequency may stay the same but duration increasing or decreasing is meaningful. Duration can also be used for skill acquisition goals like time on task or social skills.
An efficient way to track these interfering behaviors is to use partial interval recording. By dividing the observation period into smaller units of time, like 1-minute and then checking off the times that these behaviors occur, we get information about both duration and frequency. This can then be graphed so that we can see trends in behavior.
Probe Data
Probe data means that we take yes/no data on the first trial of a program and then put our pencils down and teach! Probes can also be done less often if in a classroom situation (e.g., think spelling test), or in the community. Teaching should still happen after the probe (especially if it was incorrect!). Mastery may be something like “3 correct responses across 2 different people.” For example, if a student is learning to label colors, you might mark down a “yes” or “no” for the first time each day that you ask them to name their colors. Then, continue to do lots of fun play activities with colors (but no data!). Probe data can be great for progressing students who learn quickly through programs. They may only need a few exposures of the material. For example, a probe data sheet can be used with a program like, “Expressive Labels” such that multiple targets can be run simultaneously, and the student can advance through them quickly. Caution: the downside of probe data collection is that instructors might not run as many teaching trials as they should if there are no data to record after the first response. Probe data can be easily achieved in a classroom setting as there is often a lot of teaching happening anyway throughout the day.
Trial-by-Trial Data
Taking trial-by-trial data means that we record data for each trial run and then get a percentage of correct responses. If a student is asked to label a set of 3 colors (e.g., blue, red, yellow), you can take data on each color presented (correct or incorrect) and end up with a percentage score. Mastery is usually something like, “80% or more for 2 sessions, across 2 people.” Some children need more exposure, and repetition is good for their learning. Collecting trial-by-trial data encourages instructors to run at least 10 trials. Graphing the percentage tells us more information about performance across trials than probe data. It is also more objective than rating scale data. By graphing the percentage, we can see if the curve is increasing or decreasing or if there are any other notable changes.
See the example below for one graph illustrating an increasing trend and one graph illustrating a decreasing trend. The graph with increasing data tells us that the student can label all 3 of those colors with proficiency. When a graph looks like this, we can “master” teaching those 3 colors and move to teaching another set of colors. The graph with decreasing data tells us that we need to look closer at how the colors are being taught as the student is not learning the way we are teaching. Perhaps the student has over-generalized and is answering, “Blue” for every answer, or perhaps the student is just randomly selecting a response, or just not motivated to respond. In any case, the data show us that we need to look at our teaching procedures and make changes.
Figure 1. Graph with an increasing trend.
Graph with a decreasing trend.
This is often the default measure of progress but also the most cumbersome because it means that you are also looking for every opportunity that the response could have occurred but did not. Percentage is most appropriate for testing-style goals – when working at a table and the student is clearly presented with multiple opportunities in a row. For example, after a unit on animals, the teacher presents 10 animals for the student to label. The student’s score out of 10 would be the percentage correct. This is often not ideal for many goals, so think about choosing frequency or probe instead.
Rating scale data
A rating scale describes behavior along a continuum, like a rubric. Although rating scale data can be subjective, they can describe the level of independence (or resistance) for an activity without impeding teaching. During the time when the instructor and the student are getting to know each other, relationship building and engagement (a.k.a. pairing) are first and foremost (Oliveira & Shillingsburg, 2023). A clipboard or electronic data collection may ruin the quality of that interaction. Rating scale data can outline some goals for the instructor to work on and then the child can be rated at the end of the session, based on a continuum of how well they did that day. The scores are then graphed. Check out more about rating scale data sheets and download a free copy.
A rating scale is also a great measurement tool for group-based learning in a classroom. The students can each have goals that can be accomplished in a group setting, for example “staying on task” or “raising hand.” Then, while the teacher is teaching, another staff member can record rating scale data. Rating scale data is also something that doesn’t need to be recorded in the moment; when the activity is over, the teacher can recall how the student did based on the defined scale. Rating scale data are easy for any staff member to collect without it being overwhelming.
Conclusion
Choosing a data collection method is an important part of the process but only the first step. Do not forget to then analyze and refer to the data to make data-based decisions. Include your team in reviewing the data and ask for input as to what they think might need to be changed. Refer to data when dialoguing with parents about progress, particularly if parents were part of the data collection. You want them to appreciate that data tell an important story.
As a teacher, you want to see your students make progress. Data can help you assess, plan, and monitor that progress in a way that doesn’t have to be overwhelming. When used as a tool, it will help you, parents, and the student see that progress and be able to make changes accordingly.
References
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Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis. Pearson UK.
Fiske, K., & Delmolino, L. (2012). Use of discontinuous methods of data collection in behavioral intervention: Guidelines for practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 77-81. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391826
Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective educational practices for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 150-165. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576030180030301
Merbitz, C. T., Merbitz, N. H., & Pennypacker, H. S. (2015). On terms: Frequency and rate in applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 39(2), 333-338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-015-0048-z
Oliveira, J., & Shillingsburg, A. (2023). Clinical Corner: Building rapport with students using specific strategies to promote pairing. Science in Autism Treatment, 20(12).
Citation for this article
Karpel, S., & Gaunt, S. (2024). Clinical Corner: How do I choose the right data collection method? Science in Autism Treatment, 21(5).
About the Authors
Shira Karpel, MEd, R.B.A (Ont), BCBA is the co-founder and director of How to ABA, an online resource and community for ABA professionals. Shira has a Masters in Special Education and has been in the field of ABA since 2011, receiving her BCBA in 2014. Together with Shayna, they trained and taught many therapists, clients, and parents and collected a massive bank of ABA programs and resources. In an effort to give back to the field, Shira and Shayna decided to create How to ABA as a way of sharing our collection of resources with others. As a former teacher, her passion is in using ABA in classrooms in order to create positive and comprehensive learning environments for all students. She is the Clinical Director at a private school in Toronto and is loving getting to make a difference in the lives of children and families daily. She is passionate about making the principles of ABA practical, doable and relevant to every child in any situation
Shayna Gaunt, MA, R.B.A (Ont), BCBA is a dedicated professional in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and co-founder of How to ABA, an online resource and community supporting ABA professionals. With over two decades in the field, a Master’s Degree in ABA from the University of Nevada Reno, and extensive international experience, Shayna brings a vast expertise across diverse settings. She emphasizes collaborative excellence in direct therapy, supervision, and training, striving to deliver high-quality services and resources to clients and fellow ABA practitioners. Through How to ABA, Shayna aims to make ABA principles accessible and practical, fostering a community where professionals can share, learn, and grow together.
Figure 1. Graph with an increasing trend.
Graph with a decreasing trend.