Reposted with permission from Action Behavior Centers
Applied Behavior Analysis therapy, most commonly known as ABA therapy, has grown to become the leading therapy for children with autism. Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) primarily work with children on the autism spectrum and their families. As the field continues to grow, it is important to identify potential variables that will lead to a family choosing behavioral therapy (in this case ABA therapy) for their autistic child.
The therapy that BCBAs and RBTS (Registered Behavior Technicians) provide, when done effectively, creates a genuine relationship between each therapist and child. To better understand each child’s individual needs, it is important to recognize the child’s unique perspective. Vast majority of BCBAs are trained in educational programs that focus primarily on teaching technical and concept-based skills. However, to be able to successfully work with families of children with autism, we require skills beyond conceptual scenarios.
Critical interpersonal skills are essential when providing our families with the best, highest quality care possible. Amongst these skills, providing compassionate care is the most important stepping stone in building a relationship with the autistic child. This type of care also plays an important aiding factor in distressing families from any potential concerns. Compassionate care is vital to the success of ABA therapy as it builds the trust between the behavioral therapist and the child. This then helps strengthen the engagement and outcomes for each child. By providing compassionate care, a child is willing to move forward with the concept-based scenarios as if it is normal day-to-day activities, which ultimately results in the successful progression of positive skill development.
In simple terms, compassionate care refers to one being able to put themselves in the shoes of those they are working with by responding with sympathy, empathy, and compassion. By applying techniques of compassionate care, an ABA therapist can identify a family’s perspective and tactfully use their own personal experiences to provide the appropriate response to both the child and their parents. We understand that receiving an autism diagnosis for your child can be overwhelming. After receiving a diagnosis, parents have just as much to learn about autism as the child. By providing compassionate care, we are able to help alleviate the stress that these new situations can cause.
It is important to understand that being diagnosed with autism does not make your child less than. If anything, a child on the spectrum could be highly intelligent and extremely curious. Action Behavior Centers’ ABA therapist understands that providing compassionate care is understanding that your child may need a little extra support and attention. This extra support does not mean your child is lacking in ability. We believe in helping your child reach their full potential by believing in your child and helping them achieve new milestones.
Action Behavior Centers (ABC) is an organization committed to the treatment of children using empirically validated methods and strategies to assist each child in reaching his or her greatest potential and improving their quality of life.
Helping your child transition to a school sleep schedule can be a rewarding and empowering experience for parents of children on the autism spectrum. While it may initially seem challenging to adjust to the structured routine of the school year, especially after the more relaxed summer months, there are effective strategies that can make this process smoother. By implementing these 5 tips, parents can ensure their child is energized, refreshed, and fully prepared to embrace each school day with enthusiasm.
1) Create a Consistent Sleep Schedule
A consistent sleep schedule in a child’s routine is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, having a predictable routine can bring about positive effects by reducing anxiety and providing a comforting sense of stability. Secondly, a lack of sleep can exacerbate behavioral challenges and difficulties with attention and focus. It is recommended for children to aim for 8-12 hours of sleep each night. Ensuring a regular sleep schedule increases the likelihood of children being well-rested, which can positively impact their overall mood, behavior, and cognitive abilities.
2) Establish a Bedtime Routine
Establishing a consistent bedtime routine is essential for children. Following a predictable sequence of activities each night can help your child wind down and prepare for sleep. Begin by choosing calming activities, such as reading a book or a warm bath, to signal to your child that it’s time to relax.
3) Gradually Adjust Bedtime and Wake-Up Time
As you work to transition your child to a school sleep schedule, it’s important to do so gradually. Abruptly changing their bedtime and wake-up time can cause stress and resistance. Instead, make minor adjustments to their schedule each day, slowly shifting their bedtime and wake-up time closer to their school schedule. This will allow their body to adjust and make the transition smoother.
4) Create a Calming Sleep Environment
Creating a calming sleep environment is crucial for children to promote relaxation and restful sleep. Start by ensuring the bedroom is free from distractions, such as loud noises or bright lights. Use blackout curtains or a white noise machine to block out disruptive stimuli. Additionally, provide your child with a comfortable, cozy bed using soft blankets and pillows. Incorporating soothing elements like a nightlight or a weighted blanket (if appropriate for their age) can also help create a serene atmosphere.
5) Implement Visual Aids and Rewards System
Implementing visual aids and a rewards system can be beneficial when transitioning your child to a school sleep schedule. Visual aids, such as a visual schedule or a picture chart, can provide a clear and understandable visual representation of the bedtime routine. This can help your child understand and anticipate each step in the process. Additionally, a rewards system can motivate and positively reinforce bedtime routines and adherence to the sleep schedule. You can create a sticker chart or a token system where your child earns rewards for following the routine and going to bed on time. This can help make the transition more enjoyable and rewarding for your child, ultimately leading to a smoother adjustment to the school sleep schedule.
About BlueSprig
BlueSprig is on a mission to change the world for children with autism.
BlueSprig Is the Premier Provider with the Highest Standards in ABA Therapy Our mission is simple: we are focused on changing the world for children with autism.
The main question we seek the answer to is “what if?”
What if we focus on quality services? What if we are a leader in ABA research? What if we are strong advocates for the rights of all children with autism? Instead of choosing, we’re pursuing all three together – that’s the BlueSprig difference.
In the Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) field, it is believed that there is always an underlying reason for all behavior. Our behavior serves a purpose, even though it may not always be clear. All behavior can be narrowed down to one (or more) of four reasons, also known as functions. The 4 functions of behavior are categorized as attention, escape, tangible, and sensory. Trying to understand why an adult or child is engaging in a target behavior may be challenging, but determining the specific function of behavior that is being exhibited can assist in guiding a treatment plan to help decrease or increase a specific behavior.
Attention (Connection) – This function can be described as when someone engages in a behavior in an effort to gain attention. Children may behave negatively to get attention even if it isn’t positive attention. However, It is important to remember that not all attention seeking behavior should be perceived negatively. For example, raising your hand to be called on and screaming for someone to come over are both attention seeking behaviors, but one of the two is more socially acceptable.
Escape (Avoidance) – Escape is one of the most common functions. This occurs when people engage in certain behaviors in order to avoid or end an unpleasant experience. A child may behave in a certain way that is unacceptable to get out of doing something they don’t want to do. Examples of this could be sleeping in class to avoid working or taking a different route home to avoid traffic.
Tangible (Attaining) – This can be described as someone engaging in a behavior for access to something. In order to obtain an object or take part in an activity in which a person is particularly interested, a person may behave in a particular manner. A child screaming to get a toy or finishing their homework for tv time are both examples of a tangible function of behavior.
Sensory (Automatic) – This behavior occurs when people engage in certain behaviors because they physically feel good or to relieve negative feelings. It is referring to stimulating the senses. An example of this would be itching an ant bite or fanning yourself on a hot day.
Understanding Positive and Negative Reinforcements
In general, behavioral outcomes can serve one of two purposes. The reasoning behind these behaviors is to either acquire something or remove from something. When a child behaves in a way to acquire something, it’s called positive reinforcement. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is the removal of something unpleasant to the child.
To help with further understanding, both positive and negative reinforcements can be better understood through attention and sensory reinforcement. Attention positive reinforcement occurs when a child receives something as a result of someone else’s actions. For example, a child might ask their father for a blanket. To positively reinforce the child’s communication of asking, the father will provide the blanket. Whereas, negative reinforcement might be where the father removes the blanket because the child no longer wants to use it.
A third concept is that of automatic reinforcement. In this circumstance, the reinforcement happens without the help of anyone else. The child is able to meet their needs on one’s own. Using the same scenario, a child getting their own blanket is positive reinforcement. As far as negative reinforcement, this would result in the child pushing the blanket off of themself.
How can we help?
A child’s motivation behind specific actions or behaviors can be pinpointed by understanding the four functions of behavior, but it is important to remember that a single behavior can hold two or more functions. In addition, it is important to comprehend both positive and negative reinforcements in order to fully grasp why a behavior is occurring. By identifying these functions, we can teach kids to meet their needs in a positive way. In ABA therapy, our staff will observe your child in their element. We will pay close attention to what is happening before and after the targeted behavior to identify the key function. After being assessed, we will teach replacement behaviors. The goal is to decrease target behaviors and increase desired behavior to ensure behavioral consistency in all environments to achieve success on the spectrum.
About Action Behavior Centers
Action Behavior Centers (ABC) is an organization committed to the treatment of children using empirically validated methods and strategies to assist each child in reaching his or her greatest potential and improving their quality of life.
Reposted with permission from Ashleigh Evans, MS, BCBA
Visual supports are items used as prompts/cues to help guide one toward the expected behavior. Visual supports are not exclusive to children with autism. Even as adults, we all use visual supports, from our planners to organization apps and more.
Visual supports can be beneficial in reminding children of the expectations and guiding them through adaptive behaviors.
We’ll review a few common visual supports. If your child is receiving treatment, chat with their care team about implementing the most appropriate visual supports for your child. It’s easy to get carried away with all the visuals, but that can get overstimulating for many kids. Try one thing at a time to get a good idea of what is most helpful and build from there.
First-Then Visual
This is a tool that is simple to create and implement. The purpose is to help your child understand what’s to come next. You can create this in a simple way with a paper labeled first on the left side and then on the right side. You can use words or visuals to show your child what the current task is and what will come next.
Typically, the “first” side will have a non-preferred task such as “clean your room” and the “then” side will have a preferred item or activity such as “play outside.” So, first clean your room, then play outside.
Stop Signs
Ensuring your child’s safety is everyone’s number 1 priority. Teaching your child to respond to stop signs can be a great visual prompt as a reminder of locations they can and cannot go around the home.
Place a laminated stop sign on the doors leading outside (or any other areas in the home that are unsafe for your child). This can serve as a reminder to your child to pause and not go out that door if they are unaccompanied by an adult. This will take practice, but once they have the idea down, stop signs can be an excellent prompt!
Visual Schedules
The first-then visual is a simplified visual schedule showing two activities. A full visual schedule can be created to help your child understand several upcoming events. There are many ways to set this up. For example, you could set this up as a schedule of their full day. Or you may create one to support them through a portion of their day, such as the bedtime routine consisting of brush teeth, put on pajamas, bedtime story, etc.
Again, there are many ways you can go about creating this including using pictures or words. You could go about creating one yourself or purchasing one.
Visual Timers
Visual timers can be a really helpful way to help a child who doesn’t quite understand the concept of time, comprehend how much time is left of an activity. The red on the clock visually displays how much time is remaining for an activity or until an upcoming transition.
Visuals can be so valuable in prompting us through our daily lives. Finding effective visual supports for your child can make a huge difference.
About the Author
Ashleigh Evans, MS, is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. She has been practicing in the behavior analysis field for over 13 years and opened her own independent practice in early 2022. Her experience has been vast across different age groups, diagnoses, and needs. She is passionate about improving the field through education, reformative action, and better supervisory practices, leading her to create content and resources for families and ABA professionals which can be found on her website, https://www.abaresourcecenter.com/.
Helping children with autism understand and express emotions is beneficial for their social and emotional development. One effective way to support this is by incorporating emotion flashcards into natural environment teaching (NET) activities. Below, we will explore the benefits of using emotion flashcards, provide guidance on incorporating them into everyday activities, and highlight their impact on promoting emotional understanding in children with autism. Whether you’re a parent, clinician, or teacher, this resource will empower you to create engaging and effective learning experiences for children with autism.
Understanding Emotion Flashcards
Emotion flashcards are visual aids that depict various emotions through pictures or illustrations. These cards provide a concrete representation of emotions, making them accessible and easily understandable for children with autism. By using emotion flashcards, we can teach children to identify, label, and understand their own emotions, as well as recognize and empathize with the emotions of others.
Benefits of Emotion Flashcards in NET Activities
Visual Supports: Emotion flashcards offer visual supports that enhance communication and comprehension for children with autism. The visual nature of the cards helps bridge the gap between verbal and nonverbal communication, enabling children to better grasp and express emotions.
Generalization: Incorporating emotion flashcards into naturally occurring activities allows children to practice recognizing and understanding emotions in various contexts. This promotes generalization of skills, helping children transfer their knowledge of emotions from flashcards to real-life situations.
Personalization: Emotion flashcards can be customized to reflect the individual experiences and preferences of each child. Personalized cards featuring familiar faces or specific situations can help children relate to the emotions depicted and make the learning experience more meaningful and relevant.
Incorporating Emotion Flashcards in NET Activities
Start with Basic Emotions: Begin by introducing a small set of basic emotions, such as happy, sad, angry, and surprised. Use the emotion flashcards during play activities that naturally evoke these emotions. For example, during playtime, show the happy card when the child is engaged in an enjoyable activity.
Emotion Charades: Engage the child in a game of emotion charades using the flashcards. Take turns acting out an emotion while the other person guesses which emotion is being depicted. This activity promotes perspective-taking and understanding of nonverbal cues.
Emotion Identification: Show the child a flashcard and ask them to identify the corresponding emotion. Provide reinforcement and praise for correct responses. Gradually increase the complexity by introducing more nuanced emotions, such as excited, frustrated, or worried.
Emotion Role-Play: Use the flashcards to create role-play scenarios. Assign different emotions to the child and yourself, and act out how each emotion might be expressed in various situations. Encourage the child to mimic the facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice associated with each emotion.
Emotion Matching: Create a matching game using emotion flashcards and corresponding facial expression cards. Have the child match the emotion flashcards with pictures of people displaying the corresponding emotions. This activity helps reinforce recognition and understanding of emotions in different contexts.
Emotion Sorting: Provide a variety of flashcards representing different emotions and ask the child to sort them into categories based on positive and negative emotions or high-intensity and low-intensity emotions. This activity encourages categorization and differentiation of emotions.
Emotion Journaling: Incorporate the use of emotion flashcards in a journaling activity. Have the child select a flashcard that represents how they are feeling at different times of the day and encourage them to write or draw their experiences and reflections.
Incorporating emotion flashcards into natural environment teaching activities can be a powerful tool for promoting emotional understanding in children with autism. By using visual supports, personalized experiences, and engaging activities, we can help children identify and understand emotions, enhance their social interactions, and develop important skills for lifelong emotional well-being. Whether you’re a parent, clinician, or teacher, incorporating emotion flashcards into everyday activities can create meaningful learning experiences that support the emotional growth of children with autism.
About the Author
Nicole Gorden, M.S., BCBA, LBA has over 14 years of experience implementing Applied Behavior Analysis principles with the Autism Population. She currently works for Comprehensive Behavior Supports in Brooklyn, NY.
This month’s ASAT feature comes to us from Daniel W. Mruzek, PhD, BCBA-D, University of Rochester. To learn more about ASAT, please visit their website at www.asatonline.org. You can also sign up for ASAT’s free newsletter, Science in Autism Treatment, and like them on Facebook!
Marketers of purported interventions for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), whether they are pills, devices, or exercises, claim that their products are effective. As proof, they point to any number of measures: some valid, some questionable, and some potentially misleading. Given that many of these “treatments” may be costly, ineffective and even dangerous, it is good to consider what constitutes legitimate measures of therapeutic benefit. How will we know if the intervention actually works?
A first step when presented with a potential treatment option is to investigate its scientific record. One can certainly ask the marketer (or therapist, interventionist, clinician, etc.) for examples of already published and peer-reviewed studies examining the effectiveness of their recommended intervention. An honest marketer will be glad to give you what they have in this regard or freely disclose that none exist. A good second step is to consult with a trusted professional (e.g., physician, psychologist, or behavior analyst who knows your family member) to get an objective appraisal of the intervention. If, after this first level of investigation is completed, a decision is made to pursue a particular intervention for a family member, there are additional questions that one can ask the marketer prior to implementation. Such questions may prove very helpful in determining effectiveness after the intervention has been employed. These include the following:
Question 1: “What behaviors should change as a result of the intervention?”
Virtually any ASD intervention that is truly effective will result in observable change in behavior. For example, a speech intervention may very well result in increased spoken language (e.g., novel words, greater rate of utterances). An academic intervention should result in specific new academic skills (e.g., independent proficiency with particular math operations). An exercise purported to decrease the occurrence of challenging behavior will, if effective, result in a lower rate of specific challenging behaviors (e.g., tantrums, self-injury). As “consumers” of ASD interventions, you and your family member have every right to expect that the marketer will identify specific, objective, and measurable changes in behaviors that indicate treatment efficacy. Scientists refer to such definitions as “operational definitions” – these are definitions that are written using observable and measurable terms. If the marketer insists on using ill-defined, “fuzzy” descriptions of treatment benefit (e.g., “increased sense of well-being”, “greater focus and intentionality”, an increased “inner balance” or “regulation”), then “Buyer Beware!” These kinds of outcome goals will leave you guessing about treatment effect. Insist that operational definitions of target behaviors be agreed upon prior to starting the intervention.
Question 2: “How will these behavior changes be measured?”
Behavior change is often gradual and may occur in “fits and starts” (i.e., the change is variable). In some cases, the behavior may initially deteriorate. Also, our perception of behavior change can be impacted by any number of events (e.g., the co-occurrence of other therapies, our expectations for change). Therefore, it is the marketer’s responsibility to offer up a plan for collecting data regarding any change in the identified “target” behaviors. Usually, it is best to record numerical data (e.g., number of new words spoken by the individual, number of bladder accidents, duration [in minutes] of tantrums). The use of numerical data to measure the change of operationally defined target behaviors is one of the best ways for a treatment team to elevate their discussion above opinion, conjecture, and misrepresentation. If a pill, therapy, or gadget is helpful, there is almost assuredly a change in behavior. And, that change is almost always quantifiable. Setting up a system to collect these numerical data prior to the initiation of the new intervention is a key to objective evaluation of intervention. Don’t do intervention without it.
Question 3: “When will we look at these intervention data and how will they be presented?”
Of course, it is not enough to collect data; these data need to be regularly reviewed by the team! One of the best ways to portray data is “graphically”, such as plotting points on a graph, so that they can be inspected visually. This gives the team a chance to monitor overall rates or levels of target behaviors, as well as identify possible trends (i.e., the “direction” of the data over time, such as decreasing or increasing rates) and look for change that may occur after the start of the new intervention. Note that the review of treatment data is generally a team process, meaning that relevant members of the team, including the clinicians (or educators), parents, the individual with ASD (as appropriate) often should look at these data together. Science is a communal process, and this is one of the things that makes it a powerful agent of change.
An interventionist with a background in behavior analysis can set up strategies for evaluating a possible treatment effect. For example, in order to gauge the effectiveness of a new intervention, a team may elect to use a “reversal design,” in which the target behaviors are monitored with and without the intervention in place. If, for example, a team wishes to assess the helpfulness of a weighted blanket in promoting a child’s healthful sleep through the night, data regarding duration of sleep and number of times out of bed might be looked at during a week with the blanket available at bedtime and a week without the blanket available. Another strategy is to use the intervention on “odd” days and not use it on “even” days. Data from both “odd” and “even” days can be graphed for visual inspection, and, if the intervention is helpful, a “gap” will appear between the data sets representing the two conditions. These strategies are not complex, but they give the team an opportunity to objectively appraise whether or not a specific intervention is helpful, which is much better than informal observation. Few things are as clarifying in a team discussion as plotted data placed on the table of a team meeting.
If the marketer does not answer these questions directly and satisfactorily, consider turning to a trusted professional (e.g., psychologist, physician, or behavior analyst) for help. Families have a right to know whether their hard-earned money, as well as their time and energy, are being spent wisely. Asking these questions “up front” when confronted with a new intervention idea will help. Marketers have a responsibility to present their evidence – both the “state-of-the-science” as reflected in peer-reviewed research, as well as their plans to measure the potential effectiveness of their intervention for the individual whom they are serving.
Citation for this article:
Mruzek, D. W. (2014). ASD intervention: How do we measure effectiveness? Science in Autism Treatment, 11(3), 20-21
About the Author
Daniel W. Mruzek, PhD, BCBA-D has been a member of the faculty at the University of Rochester since 2002 and currently maintains an appointment in the Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences and Psychology. Also, he is CEO of Elevation Behavioral Services LLC, based at the Golisano Autism Center in Rochester, NY. As a psychologist and behavior analyst, Dr. Mruzek specializes in direct consultation and technical assistance to school districts and agencies through the region, nationally, and internationally. His areas of expertise include clinical and psychoeducational assessment of individuals with developmental and learning disabilities, assessment and treatment of challenging behavior, and promotion of inclusive practices (e.g., staff training and direct consultation to instructional teams). As a researcher, he has been the primary investigator and investigator on projects including the MCH Autism Intervention Research Program, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, Seychelles Child Development Study, and the UR Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center (IDDRC). A member of numerous committees and professional organizations, Dr. Mruzek is on the board of reviewers for several peer-reviewed scientific journals. His research has been funded by the National Institutes of Health, and he has published chapters in various books and monographs and in peer-reviewed journals including The Journal of the American Medical Association, Autism, and Environmental International.
This ASAT feature comes to us from Niall Toner, MA, BCBA of the New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities. To learn more about ASAT, please visit their website at www.asatonline.org. You can also sign up for ASAT’s free newsletter, Science in Autism Treatment, and like them on Facebook!
I am a special education teacher working with students with autism. At times I find it difficult to figure out what motivates my students and what they’re interested in. Can you make some suggestions about the best way to do this?
This is an excellent question and one that highlights a challenge often experienced not only by teachers but also by family members of individuals with autism. We know that the interests and preferences of individuals with and without autism vary significantly over time. Also, we know that effective teaching of skills and behavior change are predicated upon the timely use of powerful reinforcement (i.e., positive consequences of skilled behavior that motivate and strengthen that behavior). As discussed below, identifying an individual’s preferences is a critical first step in teaching new skills because these preferences often lead to the identification of powerful reinforcers; but how we do this can be easier said than done, especially when the learner has a limited communication repertoire or very individualized interests. The best way to identify preferences is through ongoing preference assessments.
The value of preference assessments
Since many individuals with autism may have difficulty identifying and communicating their preferences directly, we must consider alternative methods of obtaining this information. At the onset, it is important to keep in mind that what may be rewarding or reinforcing for one individual may not be for another. For example, one child may enjoy bubble play, crackers or a particular cause-and-effect toy while a classmate may find one or more of these uninteresting or even unpleasant. Furthermore, an individual’s preferences change across time. For example, an individual may have demonstrated little use for music at age 11, but she may demonstrate a keen interest in music at age 13.
Preference assessments provide a systematic, data-based approach to evaluating a host of potential interests (e.g., food, toys, activities) for an individual. Although preference assessments do require time and effort up front, their use can decrease the time and energy, required to change behavior in the long run. Research indicates that when caregivers use a presumed preference that, in fact, is not the learner’s actual preference, valuable time, energy and resources are lost (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2006).
Types of Preference Assessments
Preference assessment can be conducted in three distinct ways: (1) Interviews and Formal Surveys; (2) Direct observation; and (3) Systematic assessment.
Interviews are a straightforward technique that can be used to gather information quickly. They involve obtaining information from the individual’s parents, siblings, friends, and teachers (and from the individual, if communicative) by asking both open-ended and comparison questions. Examples of open-ended questions include: “What does he like to do?” “What are his favorite foods?” and “Where does he like to go when he has free time?” Comparison questions might include: “Which does he like better, cookies or crackers?” and “What would he rather do, go for a walk or eat chips?” Resultant information is then compiled in a list and identified items and activities can be piloted out as possible reinforcers.
Formal surveys can also be used to guide these discussions. One widely used survey is the Reinforcement Assessment for Individuals with Severe Disabilities (RAISD; Fisher, Piazza, Bowman, & Amari, 1996). This interview-based survey gathers information about potential reinforcers across a variety of domains (e.g., leisure, food, sounds, smells), and ranks them in order of preference. It should be noted that, although simple and time-efficient, using interviews alone can result in incomplete or inaccurate information. In fact, some studies have shown that, for the same individual, staff interviews did not reveal the same information as using a survey (Parsons & Reid, 1990; Winsor, Piche, & Locke, 1994).
Direct observation involves giving the individual free access to items and/or activities that he or she may like (presumed preferences) and recording the amount of time the individual engages with them. The more time spent with an item or activity, the stronger the presumed preference. In addition, positive affect while engaged with these items and activities could be noted (e.g., smiling, laughing). During these observations, no demands or restrictions are placed on the individual, and the items are never removed. These direct observations can be conducted in an environment enriched with many of the person’s preferred items or in a naturalistic environment such as the person’s classroom or home. Data are recorded over multiple days, and the total time spent on each object or activity will reveal the presumed strongest preferences. Direct observation usually results in more accurate information than interviews but also requires more time and effort.
Systematic assessment involves presenting objects and activities to the individual in a preplanned order to reveal a hierarchy or ranking of preferences. This method requires the most effort, but it is the most accurate. There are many different preference assessments methods, all of which fall into one of the following formats: single item, paired items, and multiple items (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2006).
Single item preference assessment (also known as “successive choice”) is the quickest, easiest method. Objects and activities are presented one at a time and each item is presented several times in a random order. After each presentation, data are recorded on duration of engagement with each object or activity.
Paired method or “forced-choice” (Fisher et al., 1992) involves the simultaneous presentation of two items or activities at the same time. All items are paired systematically with every other item in a random order. For each pair of items, the individual is asked to choose one. Since all objects and activities have to be paired together, this method takes significantly longer than the single-item method but will rank in order the strongest to weakest preferences. Researchers found that the paired method was more accurate than the single item method (Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata & Page, 1985; Paclawskyj & Vollmer, 1995).
The multiple-choice method is an extension of the paired method (DeLeon & Iwata, 1996). Instead of having two items to choose from, there are three or more choices presented at the same time. There are two variations to this method: with and without replacement. In the multiple choice with replacement method, when an object is selected, all other objects are replaced in the next trial. For example, if the individual is given a choice of cookies, crackers, and chips, and he chooses cookies, the cookies will be available for the next trial, but the crackers and chips are replaced with new items. In the without replacement method, the cookies would not be replaced and the choice would only be between the crackers and chips. No new items would be available.
A few final recommendations
When conducting preference assessments, consider testing leisure items/activities and food assessments separately because food tends to motivate individuals more than toys and other leisure items (Bojak & Carr, 1999; DeLeon, Iwata, & Roscoe, 1997). Also, be sure to assess preferences early and often. Preference assessments should be conducted prior to starting any new intervention or behavior change program. And remember that preferences change over time and require continuous exploration. Therefore, assessments should be updated monthly or whenever an individual appears tired of or bored with the preferred items. Keep in mind too, that the identification of one type of preference may provide ideas for other potential reinforcers. For example, if an individual loves a certain type of crunchy cereal, he/she may like other cereals or crunchy snacks. Or if an individual enjoys coloring with crayons, consider exploring whether he/she may enjoy coloring with markers or using finger paints.
Finally, when selecting a preference assessment method, a practitioner or parent should consider the individual’s communication level, the amount of time available for the assessment, and the types of preferred items that will be available. Taken together, these preference assessment methods can provide the valuable information necessary to help motivate and promote behavior change in individuals with autism.
References
Bojak, S. L., & Carr, J. E. (1999). On the displacement of leisure items by food during multiple stimulus preference assessments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 515-518.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward W. L. (2006). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evaluation of multiple-stimulus presentation format for assessing reinforcer preferences.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 519-533.
DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., & Roscoe, E. M. (1997). Displacement of leisure reinforcers by food during preference assessments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 475-484.
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., & Amari, A. (1996). Integrating caregiver report with a systematic choice assessment. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 101, 15-25.
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin, I. (1992). A comparison of two approaches for identifying reinforcers for persons with severe to profound disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 491-498.
Pace, G. M., Ivancic, M. T., Edwards, G. L., Iwata, B. A., & Page, T. J. (1985). Assessment of stimulus preference and reinforcer value with profoundly retarded individuals. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 249-255.
Paclawskyj, T. R., & Vollmer, T. R. (1995). Reinforcer assessment for children with developmental disabilities and visual impairments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 219-224.
Parsons, M. B., & Reid, D. H. (1990). Assessing food preferences among persons with profound mental retardation: Providing opportunities to make choices. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 183-195.
Windsor, J., Piche, L. M., & Locke, P. A. (1994). Preference testing: A comparison of two presentation methods. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15, 439-455.
About The Author
Niall Toner MA, BCBA, LBA is a licensed behavior analyst and board certified behavior analyst with over 10 years experience working in the fields of applied behavior analysis and developmental disabilities. Niall is currently the Clinical Director for Lifestyles for the Disabled. Prior to the position he served as a consultant to various organizations including the New York City Department of Education. He also held the position of Assistant Director at the Eden II Programs. Niall has presented locally, nationally and internationally. His interests are Preference Assessments and Functional Analysis, which he presents and publishes.
Originally reposted to Different Roads to Learning on September 28, 2017
Back to school is an exciting time for students and teachers, but those with learning differences might find it stressful to start a new school year with new faces, rules, and expectations. Fortunately, there are behavioral support strategies that can help to smooth the way for a fun, productive year of learning. Following are some research-based methods to consider.
Choice
One of the easiest ways to help students to succeed in school is to offer choices! Dunlap at el. (1994) found that students were more engaged in tasks and less disruptive when offered choices of activities. Giving students choices of activities that all achieve the same learning objective is a great way to facilitate engagement and ownership of task outcomes. Students who can pick how they learn something may be more enthusiastic about learning overall.
Momentum
Another great way to get compliance with task demands is to use the strategy of momentum. This involves asking the student to do tasks that he is likely to comply with, before asking him to do things that are harder. For example, a teacher might present a coloring activity to a student who likes to color, and then praise him for completing that activity. The next activity could then be something a little harder and less preferred, like spelling, but now the student has a history of reinforcement for compliance and so is more likely to continue to comply. Lipshultz and Wilder (2017) offer a review of the recent research in this area.
Task Distribution
Sometimes stretching learning out over multiple sessions and across days can be helpful. Some research shows that distributed learning, where students are given instruction on the same skill for several days, is more efficient and effective than massed learning, where students are given lengthy instruction on the same skill all at once (e.g., Haq et al., 2015). For students who struggle in a particular area, consider shorter, more frequent opportunities to practice and learn.
Given thoughtful supports and reasonable, meaningful accommodations, students with learning challenges can be successful and happy in school. Adding some strategies like the ones described here can make for a fun and productive year!
References
Dunlap, G., DePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright,S., White, R., & Gomez, A. (1994). Choice making to promote adaptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505–518.
Haq, S. S., Kodak, T., Kurtz-Nelson, E., Porritt, M., Rush, K., & Cariveau, T. (2015). Comparing the effects of massed and distributed practice on skill acquisition for children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 454–459.
Lipschultz, J. & Wilder, D. A. (2017). Recent research on the high-probability instructional sequence: A brief review. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50, 424–428.
About The Author
Dana Reinecke, Ph.D., BCBA-D is a New York State Licensed Psychologist and Licensed Behavior Analyst (LBA). Dana is an Assistant Program Director in the Applied Behavior Analysis department at Capella University, overseeing the PhD in Behavior Analysis program and mentoring doctoral learners. She is also co-owner of SupervisorABA, an online platform for BACB supervision curriculum and documentation. Dana has provided training and consultation to school districts, private schools, agencies, and families for individuals with disabilities. She has published her research in peer-reviewed journals, written chapters in published books, and co-edited books on ABA and autism. Current areas of research include use of technology to support students with and without disabilities, self-management training of college students with disabilities, and online teaching strategies for effective college and graduate education. Dana is a Past President of the New York State Association for Behavior Analysis (NYSABA).
Originally published by Different Roads to Learning on September 21, 2017.
By Morgan van Diepen, M.Ed., BCBA, co-founder of ABA Visualized
When it comes to teaching behavior strategies, reinforcement is one of the fundamental tools we use to encourage learners to develop new skills. Reinforcement can take various forms, such as praise, stickers, breaks, toys, or even homework passes. However, amid the importance of this strategy, there is often confusion surrounding different approaches, not to mention the jargon that comes with it – DRA, DRI, DRO – no wonder it can feel overwhelming!
Let’s demystify the concept of “differential reinforcement” and discuss when to use each type!
Differential reinforcement is a method of providing varying levels of recognition and rewards based on the behaviors we want to promote. In simpler terms, we adjust our responses to encourage learners to display certain skills more frequently. Let’s illustrate this with an example:
Imagine we are teaching a child to tie their shoes. Usually, they need a lot of support, but today they make an extraordinary effort to do it independently. In such a scenario, we can show more excitement in our celebrations and grant them extra playtime outside as a special reward for their progress. On days when they display less independent effort, we may show less excitement. Effort = Reward!
Similarly, in a school setting, consider a student who requires frequent reminders to stay on task. If they ask for a break, we could give them a short, two-minute break. However, if they have demonstrated exceptional focus and then requested a break, we might grant them a longer, five-minute break as a reward for their extra effort. The idea is that by adjusting our celebrations, we are encouraging more independence in new skills!
To dive a bit deeper, there are different types of differential reinforcement: Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA), Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI), and Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO). While all this jargon can be confusing, it’s essential that behavior experts understand these concepts and when to use each one, as they each have their own unique benefits.
Let’s look at what each of these approaches would look like for one scenario: a learner who struggles with sharing and often grabs items from others, occasionally also hitting or pinching them (with the function of access).
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)
In DRA, we are aiming to build a behavior that is a better way for them to access or express their wants and needs. This behavior matches the function of the challenging behavior, meaning it’s just a better way for them to get what they want or need. In a DRA, we are often recognizing their engagement in communication skills like asking for help, a break, space, more time, items/activities, or attention by rewarding them with exactly what they asked for. In this scenario, when the learner asks for a turn, we recognize and reward his use of communication by allowing him to have a turn. Reminder: always individualize expectations based on your learner’s communication mode!
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)
In DRI, we are aiming to build a behavior of a specific expectation. This often involves tolerating something they may not particularly want to do, but need to do, including going to school, taking turns, completing assignments, keeping hands to self, and following directions. The team will choose one specific behavior to build and then determine a reward that the learner can earn for engaging in this expected behavior. The reward can be anything that’s motivating! In this scenario, even though the learner would rather being playing with the slime, he’s learning to share by waiting for his turn. When he waits for a certain amount of time, he earns the reward!
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)
In DRO, our focus is on reducing the challenging behavior by rewarding times that it did not occur. The learner does not have to engage in any specific behavior to earn the reward, just refrain from the challenging behavior. First, determine how often the behavior is occurring and then create a schedule where the learner can earn a reward for going a specific amount of time (just less than their baseline) without engaging in the target challenging behavior. In this example, the learner was grabbing items and hitting his sister about every 20 minutes. The mom set up a schedule where every 15 minutes that he goes without grabbing/hitting, he earns a reward. Similar to DRI, the reward here can be anything that’s motivating! With this strategy, instead of recognizing and rewarding a specific skill (like requesting for a turn or waiting), we are rewarding the absence of challenging behaviors.
To choose which approach is best for your learner, identify the team’s priority goal!
Building communication/self-advocacy → Try DRA
Teaching tolerance → Try DRI
Maintaining safety → Try DRO
It’s important to remember that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to differential reinforcement. Each learner is unique, and behavior experts should tailor their strategies to suit individual needs and challenges. You might choose to start with one approach and transition to another once certain target skills have been developed successfully. For example, if a learner frequently has challenging behaviors when asked to transition off preferred items and they haven’t yet learned to ask for more time, DRA would be a great choice to recognize and reward this communication. But once they are consistently asking for more time, moving to a DRI where they learn to tolerate “no” would be an appropriate next step. By using a range of reinforcement options and gradually fading out rewards as skills improve, we can encourage faster progress and build better behaviors effectively.
At ABA Visualized, we are committed to making behavior expertise approachable and easy to understand. In addition to the visuals seen here, our 2nd Edition ABA Visualized Guidebook offers 27 evidence-based visual strategies that embody a compassionate approach to supporting learners, including a new chapter on specific strategies for inclusive classrooms! With brand-new strategies and reimagined classics, you can feel confident you are supporting learners with current best practices and compassion. We’ve also updated our collection of templates and tools to accommodate the use of the strategies, making this a truly comprehensive resource!
About the Author
Our mission at ABA Visualized is to make behavioral expertise approachable, accessible, and relatable. This has been our mission since our first publication in 2018 and continues to guide decisions in everything we do.
As a BCBA working abroad and then with the vibrant international community in Los Angeles, Morgan quickly developed a passion for supporting under-serviced families. She realized the recurring barriers affecting these communities and limiting their access to effective behavioral expertise: long waitlists to learn from expert service providers and an abundance of technical jargon-filled texts. Morgan began to refine her approach to better disseminate behavior strategies to those who truly need it: families and educators.
As an infographic designer, Morgan’s husband, Boudewijn (Bou), naturally understands how visual storytelling can make the unclear, clear and the unknown, known. In a true collaboration between Morgan and Bou’s skillset, their flagship product, the ABA Visualized Guidebook, was created utilizing step-by-step visuals and approachable language to accomplish that sought-after accessible behavior expertise.
Since this publication, ABA Visualized as a company has grown to offer a collection of books and trainings available worldwide. We aim to continue empowering others through approachable education on strategies that can make truly meaningful impacts on individuals’ lives.
Essential for Living was published in 2013 andis a result of the guidance of our professors, Ogden Lindsley, Don Baer, and Mont Wolf, and the many children and adults with moderate-to-severe disabilities and limited skill repertoires. While many of these children and adults have autism, many others have congenital disorders like Down syndrome, Angelman syndrome, and any one of a number of other congenital conditions or pervasive disabilities that were acquired later in life.
Essential for Living is about all of these children and adults. It focuses on teaching the Essential Eight life skills, which help learners achieve better quality of life and eventually transition beyond a school setting:
Making Requests (mands)
Waiting after the request is made
Accepting Removals: Transitions, Sharing, and Taking Turns
Completing Required Tasks
Accepting “No”
Following Directions related to Health and Safety
Completing Daily Living Skills related to Health and Safety
Tolerating Situations related to Health and Safety
Our mission is to bring these Essential Eightlife skills to these children and adults, most of whom have difficulty fully understanding abstract concepts and making consistent progress on either a developmental curriculum like the VB-MAPP, or academic standards like the Common Core or Alternate Assessment Standards. The goal of this mission is to improve quality of life, rather than to catch up to typically developing peers or reach academic standards designed for those peers.
By shifting the learning goals away from meeting a more academic curriculum, Essential for Living offers more individualized and inclusive therapy that bolsters success among a wider range of learners, including individuals with more limiting or severe disabilities who are not a good fit for assessments like the VB-MAPP or the ABLLS-R.
1. Issues you should consider addressing and skills you should consider teaching first;
2. Teaching procedures, some of which may not be familiar to you, that may be required with children and adults with limited skill repertoires; and
3. Performance criteria that include fluency.
An assessment with EFL will result in a list of specific skill deficits and problem behaviors that can become goals and objectives in an IEP or ISP, rather than a numerical indication of performance levels with respect to other learners or published performance standards. Learners will also receive alternative methods of speaking for non-verbal children and adults that last a lifetime.
Teaching with EFL will result in more effective teaching procedures and behavior plans, and more meaningful outcomes; more efficient IEP reviews and quarterly progress reports which include small increments of learner progress; and meaningful and achievable performance standards for teacher/therapist self-evaluation. Later, when it’s time for a transition plan, Essential for Living will guide instruction toward skills and outcomes that will matter in a post-school or post-clinic environment.
By making essential life skills obtainable early in life and beyond the classroom, we meet learners where they are. When we start with these strong foundations, we ensure better quality of life for all learners, no matter what their ability level.
About the Authors
Patrick McGreevy, Ph.D., BCBA-D
Patrick McGreevy received B.S. and M.A. degrees in Psychology and Special Education, respectively, from the University of Iowa. He was a special education teacher for eight years, working with children and young adults with moderate-to-severe developmental disabilities. He received the Ph.D. degree in Education from Kansas University under the guidance of Ogden R. Lindsley. He has served on the faculties of the University of Missouri-Kansas City, Louisiana State University, the University of Central Florida, and the Florida Institute of Technology. He is the author of Teaching and Learning in Plain English, an introduction to Precision Teaching, and the founder and first editor of the Journal of Precision Teaching and Standard Celeration Charting. He is the author of ten journal articles and a book chapter on teaching verbal behavior. He is the first author of Essential for Living, a functional skills curriculum, assessment, and professional practitioner’s handbook based on B. F. Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior for children and adults with moderate-to-severe disabilities. For the past 30 years, he has provided consultations for children and adults with developmental disabilities in school districts, residential programs, and hospitals, specializing in the simultaneous management of aggressive and self-injurious behavior and the teaching of communication and language skills to individuals with limited repertoires. He is board certified behavior analyst, has given hundreds of presentations and workshops around the world, and is the recipient of the Ogden R. Lindsley Lifetime Achievement Award of the Standard Celeration Society. He is the President and Director of Consultation and Training Services for Essential for Living, P.A.
Troy Fry, M.S., BCBA
Troy Fry received his B.A. in Science and Mathematics from North Dakota State University and M.S. degree in Behavior Analysis and Therapy from Southern Illinois University. Troy attended the University Of Kansas doctorate program in the Department of Human Development and Family life for four years. He has been a Board Certified Behavior Analyst for the past 25 years. Troy has worked with children and adults with significant developmental disabilities in schools, clinics, hospitals, and residential programs across North America and Europe. Over the years, he has held the positions of teacher, consultant, clinical director, and chief executive officer. He is the second author of Essential for Living, a functional skills curriculum, assessment, and professional practitioner’s handbook based on B. F. Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior for children and adults with moderate-to-severe disabilities. He is the Associate Director of Training and Consultation Services for Essential for Living, P.A.
