Tag Archives: autism

5 Tips on Teaching Safety Skills to Children with Autism

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By Sarah Kupferschmidt, MA, BCBA. Reposted from the Different Roads Archives

I am passionate about empowering children with special needs and their families with skills and knowledge that they can use to improve their quality of life. This is why I am super excited to be sharing tips and strategies that relate to keeping your child with autism safe on the street. Learning to navigate the real world involves a lot of complex skills that we sometimes take for granted. For example, learning to determine when it is safe to cross the street requires the ability to attend to your environment, the ability to identify moving cars from cars that are still, the ability to identify the signal at the cross walk that lets you know it is safe to cross, among many, many, more. In some cases even more advanced problem solving is required because if the sign says it is safe to cross and a motorist continues through the intersection we need to be able to identify the moving car is approaching and that we need to wait for it to pass before crossing the street. So where do we begin?

Tip #1: The Learner is Never Wrong

I love the saying “the learner is never wrong” because of what it implies. Whenever considering teaching a new skill to a child or student we need to focus on that unique child’s strengths and weaknesses. Where do we need to boost up their skills and what do they already know so that we can capitalize on those strengths. Before going out to teach your child with autism how to cross the street safely, they should have some imitation skills, be able to respond to instructions and attend to you or a teacher amidst a lot of distractions (e.g., cars, background noise and pedestrians, just to name a few). Once you have determined they are ready to learn this important skill you would want to use things that are of interest to them and that you know align with their learning style. For example, are they a visual learner and if so, how can you incorporate visuals to maximize their learning potential in how you go out and practice crossing the street safely?

Tip #2: Simplify the Complex Skills

As mentioned earlier in the post, many of the skills that we use actually have many components, something we take for granted. In this case, teaching how to cross the street might involve the following steps:

  1. Stop at the curb/crosswalk
  2. Look at the crosswalk signal
  3. Decide if it is safe to cross (e.g., does it say ‘walk,’ or does it say ‘stop’)
  4. If the sign says walk, then look both ways
  5. Decide if it is safe (e.g., is there a car moving or not)
  6. Walk safely across the street (e.g., this means walking not running, perhaps holding your hand)

It is important to remember that these steps are just an example of what you might teach. You would individualize this based on the environment in which you live (e.g., if there is a crosswalk sign or crossing guard, or not) and the expectations you have as a family (e.g., to hold the hand or not). Teach this using tools that you know are effective with your unique child. For example, you may decide to print out a visual depiction for each of the steps and show them as you talk about it and practice. This depends on your child’s unique learning style. As with every skill that that we teach, it is never enough to just tell someone or show someone how to do it. We need to actually go out and practice.

Tip #3: Practice, Practice, Practice

Use every opportunity that you have to go out and practice this very important skill. I would also recommend that you set up specific times to go out and practice. You can use the visuals that you printed and go through each of the steps while you are out. If you notice that your child is struggling on a particular step, then practice that particular step at home even more. For example, if your child is not identifying the walk signal when you are out on the street, set up times to go over that at home.

Tip #4: Monitor Progress

In order to see how your child is doing on each of the steps it is a good idea to record how they do on each of the steps. You might print off a checklist with each of the steps that looks something like this:

Street Safety Chart

You would calculate the number of times you recorded a Y over the total number of steps (e.g., in this case 6). For example, if I worked on this with my child and he did all of the steps he would get a 6/6. If he missed a step his overall score would be 5/6 or 83%. This score can then be used to monitor progress. I would also suggest that anytime you go out and practice you highlight whichever step(s) that they missed, if any. This will allow you to see if you need to work on something a little bit more before you go out and practice.

Tip #5: Notice the Good Stuff

Feedback is critical when you are teaching a new skill. Otherwise how is your child going to know how they are doing? This means that when they get it right we need to notice it and we need to be specific about what it is they did well. You can even use the visuals if you have them. You might say something like “I love the way you followed all of the steps of what to do when crossing the street safely! You stopped at the curb, looked at the signal…etc.” You may point to the visual as you tell them. If they missed a step remind them that next time they should try to remember what it is that they missed. Anytime they do one of the steps spontaneously, point it out to them and give lots of praise. Over time we can fade the praise out but it is really important when teaching a new skill, especially at the beginning.

About the Author

Sarah Kupferschmidt, MA, BCBA, is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA) who has worked with hundreds of children with autism and their families across Ontario. She has had the privilege of supervising ABA programs and training clinical staff in those programs.  Currently Sarah offers parent coaching and workshops to teach parents but also educators on the most effective ways to teach children using the principles of ABA.  She is also a part-time faculty member at Mohawk College in the Autism Behavioral Science program, in the social sciences program at McMaster University, and an Adjunct Professor at Sage Graduate School. Sarah has appeared as a guest on CP24, CHCH news, Hamilton Life and the Scott Thompson radio show as an authority on autism.

Back to School: Disseminating the Science for Teachers and BCBAs

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By Alicia Marshall, MAT, BCBA LBS

The transition back to school and back to a new routine is always an exciting, yet bittersweet time for students and educators. Carefree summer days are in the past, and getting back into a structured daily routine can be an overwhelming process. However, new teachers, new friends, and new settings provide the opportunity to make progress with academic, behavior, and social goals. Even while students and their families should enjoy every precious moment of summer fun, it is also important to set aside some time to prepare for the transition in the new school year.

Getting Proactive

Most school-based BCBAs can attest that the most important aspect of school consultation is assisting educators and other stakeholders to be proactive about behavior instead of reactive. This advice is especially valuable while preparing for a new school year. Teachers and families can begin to discuss and implement proactive strategies in the days prior to the first day of school.

For teachers and school based BCBAs, summer preparation days can be used to discuss simple environmental manipulations that can be made within the classroom. For instance, before students even step foot in the classroom, the teacher and other support staff can arrange seating that is limited from distraction and enhances engagement. A common suggestion from BCBAs is usually to seat students with a history of elopement behavior far away from the exit doors. Some consultants may even suggest preparing some visual supports and schedules ahead of time in order to prepare staff and students. Students thrive with structure and organization, so if the classroom has established expectations the students will find it easier to decide which behaviors lead to rewards and desired activities.

Building Rapport

Antecedent interventions do not only apply to teacher prep days. Chances are, not all students will engage in challenging behaviors on the first day of school. Hence, those first days of school are crucial because they are the opportune times for pairing. Classroom staff should prioritize gaining trust and rapport with students. This process can begin the moment the students arrive at school on the first day. Teachers and staff can begin pairing with students simply by greeting students with a smile and limiting demands. Students should be given the chance to feel happy and relaxed while adjusting to a new environment.

The more the students feel comfortable in the environment, the more likely they are to view the adults in the environment as a reinforcer, or a signal for access to preferred items and activities. When trust and rapport is established, it will also be easier for teachers and staff to engage in activities that may not be highly preferred. Of course the primary focus of the teachers should not be to place increasingly difficult demands on the students. However, establishing themselves as a person that will provide rewards and other motivators, allows the adults in the classroom to assist the students in developing pivotal behaviors that will provide access to a whole world full of reinforcing items and activities.

While students are adapting to the new enrichment, teachers and staff can use the opportunity to informally assess the students’ preferences. Enriching the enrichment with items high on the students’ preference list will not only assist in the pairing process, but can also be used as potential motivators for instances of positive reinforcement scenarios.

Embracing Collaboration

Lastly, the most important aspect of the transition back to school and adjustment to a new environment and routine is collaboration with all key stakeholders. Parents and caretakers, as well as teachers, should be involved and have input on any strategies and goals put in place. The more the students’ parents and caretakers feel involved in the decisions being made for their children, the more likely they are to carry out plans with fidelity. Also, establishing effective collaboration and communication assists with overhaul generalization of behaviors and makes the students’ support system stronger and more successful.

About the Author

Alicia Marshall, MAT, BCBA LBS, started out as a Special Education teacher and made the switch over to full-time BCBA 5 years ago. Alicia received her BCBA coursework at Rutgers and currently works as a Director of Behavioral Health in the Greater Philadelphia area. Alicia is passionate about making learning fun for all stakeholders and to encourage educators to focus on socially significant goals and compassionate care. 

When Alicia is not disseminating the science of ABA, she can be found on the beaches of the Jersey Shore (and occasionally Hawaii) with her husband and two dogs.

The Importance of Teaching WH Questions

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By Ashleigh Evans, MS, BCBA

WH questions are essential building blocks of communication. Understanding and responding to questions about who, what, when, where, and why is vital for a child’s language development. BCBAs and educators commonly focus on teaching these pivotal skills for many reasons. Let’s explore why teaching WH questions is important and how it can help shape a child’s language and communication skills.

What are WH Questions?

Before we dive into why WH questions are important, let’s consider what WH questions are. WH questions encompass many different questions that start with the words “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” and “why. While it doesn’t start with WH, some people also group “how” questions under this umbrella. WH questions include the following.

Who Questions–Questions about people, such as “Who is coming over today?”

What Questions–Questions about things, thoughts, actions, or ideas, such as “What did you think about that movie?”

When Questions–Questions about times, days, or dates, such as, “When is your birthday?”

Where Questions–Questions about places, such as, “Where did you go last night?”

Why Questions–Questions about the reasons or causes for things, such as, “Why do I have to cut the grass?”

It’s important to teach kids to both ask and answer who, what, when, where, and why questions as they navigate their home, social, and academic environments. 

Why is it Important to Teach Kids to Answer WH Questions?

There are many reasons why children should be taught to answer WH questions, including the following.

  • Safety–If a child is ever lost or in another unsafe situation, they may need to communicate critical information, such as, “What’s your name?” “Where do you live?” “Who are your parents?”, etc. It can also provide parents peace of mind when their child can answer key questions about their day.
  • Building friendships and social engagement–Answering WH questions allows a child to engage socially with peers and build meaningful relationships.
  • Academic success–Understanding how to answer WH questions is vital in educational settings, where children are expected to communicate their knowledge through reading comprehension, math equations, and many other subjects.
  • Reciprocating conversations–Answering WH questions helps learners develop conversational skills, including answering and reciprocating questions. This is necessary in many settings, including social, educational, vocational, and at home.
  • Memory and recall–Teaching children to answer WH questions is a pivotal skill that leads to additional skills, such as recalling events.

Why is it important to Teach Kids to Ask WH Questions?

Learning to ask WH questions is equally important as answering them. Let’s explore some pivotal reasons that underscore the significant benefits of teaching children to ask WH questions.

  • Understanding the world around them–Asking WH questions encourages curiosity, fostering an understanding of the world around the child.
  • Academic success–An ability to ask questions aids in academic success, as the child takes an active role in their education by questioning things that expand their knowledge. 
  • Initiating conversations–Teaching children to ask WH questions helps them develop conversational skills, including initiating conversations. This can foster meaningful connections with peers and others in their lives.
  • Problem-solving–Children who can ask WH questions can build upon their knowledge, asking questions that promote critical problem-solving skills.

Resources for Teaching WH Questions

Teaching children with autism and other neurodevelopmental differences to ask and answer WH questions is a complex process with many layers. Many WH questions are abstract, involving time (when questions) or cause and effect (why or how). These can be challenging concepts for neurodivergent children to grasp.

The first step is to teach simple labeling (referred to as tacts in verbal behavior language). Labeling items and activities is a necessary prerequisite skill. For example, before a child can answer the question, “Where is your cup?”, they need to know how to label items, such as “couch,” so they can answer by saying “on the couch.” You can use flashcards to teach your learner to label various objects, including common objects around the home and school, food, clothing, body parts, and more.

As children develop the basic prerequisite WH skills, you can make learning fun and engaging by expanding upon their knowledge through games and activities. The Ask & Answer Social Skills Game is one such engaging game that you can play to help your learners develop skills related to answering WH questions.

For additional considerations on teaching these vital life skills, check out the blog, What Goes Into Teaching Children to Answer WH Questions?

About the Author

Ashleigh Evans, MS, is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. She has been practicing in the behavior analysis field for over 13 years and opened her own independent practice in early 2022. Her experience has been vast across different age groups, diagnoses, and needs. She is passionate about improving the field through education, reformative action, and better supervisory practices, leading her to create content and resources for families and ABA professionals which can be found on her website, www.abaresourcecenter.com

Misconceptions About Reinforcement

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ABA often gets a bad rap due to misunderstandings about reinforcement. In my career alone, I’ve had people tell me that people are not like rats and pigeons, that reinforcement harms intrinsic motivation, and that when I do produce behavior change, it has nothing to do with ABA but with my abilities as a teacher. Today, I’d like to clear up some misconceptions about reinforcement.

Reinforcement is not equivalent to rewards.

Reinforcement is anything that occurs immediately following a behavior that increases the future likelihood of that behavior. For instance, I am more likely to say hello to my neighbor down the street because in the past he has responded by saying “hello” back to me. However, I do not say hello to my next-door neighbor because she has never responded to my greeting. My history of reinforcement with the neighbor down the street increases the likelihood that I will greet him upon seeing him.

Reinforcement occurs in the natural environment all the time, whether we are conscious of it or not.

We are reinforced by paychecks for going to work, by our favorite dessert for visiting a restaurant 30 minutes out of our way, by compliments when we get a new haircut and more. ABA utilizes reinforcement when an individual is not acquiring skills in order to help them learn. And when ABA is implemented correctly, reinforcement should be as close to naturally occurring reinforcers as possible and should be reduced systematically over time to levels that would naturally occur in their environment.

Reinforcement works for dogs and for humans.

The previous two points illustrate that humans do respond to reinforcement, and decades of scientific research back that up. Comparing the work behavior analysts do with humans to the work behavior analysts do with other animals is not far off base. What is off base is using such a comparison to imply that behavior analysts treat people with disabilities like dogs. As with other professionals who work with individuals with disabilities, (such as speech therapists, physical therapists, nurses, etc.) most behavior analysts are professionals who put a lot of time, care, and love into their work.

Reinforcement is individualized.

Everything we do in ABA is individualized because human beings are wonderfully complex creatures that cannot be characterized by statistics, averages, or norms. One of my students may find stickers reinforcing; another may show no interest. One student may find listening to music reinforcing; another may cover his ears and ask me to turn it off. In ABA, we seek to find the items and activities that are motivating for individuals; then use those as tools not only for reinforcement but for increasing skills and broadening interests and opportunities. In an ideal ABA session, my students spend a lot of time engaging with items and activities that they enjoy while also learning and growing.

It’s easy to fall prey to misconceptions about reinforcement, but such misconceptions can make it impossible for us to understand how to alter the environment in order to provide the best possible outcomes for our students. As Skinner put it, “The ideal of behaviorism is to eliminate coercion: to apply controls by changing the environment in such a way as to reinforce the kind of behavior that benefits everyone.”

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WRITTEN BY SAM BLANCO, PhD, LBA, BCBA

Sam is an ABA provider for students ages 3-15 in NYC. Working in education for twelve years with students with Autism Spectrum Disorders and other developmental delays, Sam utilizes strategies for achieving a multitude of academic, behavior, and social goals. She is also an assistant professor in the ABA program at The Sage Colleges. You can read more of Sam’s posts for DRTL here!

Easy Data Collection for the Classroom

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Get a preview of the helpful tips found in ABA Tools of the Trade by Sam Blanco, PHD, LBA, BCBA.

From the beginning of my career, I have loved data collection. Not only does it help me track what interventions are working and how quickly my students are learning, it also provides excellent structure and organization of what needs to be done on a daily basis. Much of this love of data collection was influenced by my colleague Val Demiri. While Val and I both looked at data as a way to make our lives easier, for many of our colleagues, data appeared to be more of an obstacle than a useful tool. So we set out to change that.

We’re both so thrilled about the release of ABA Tools of the Trade: Easy Data Collection for the Classroom. Our goal is to make data collection easier, more useful, and possible considering the many tasks a teacher is already doing on a daily basis in their classroom. Here are few things we’re really excited to have in the book:

  • An overview of some of our favorite tools for data collection, including why we love them and when they might be useful for you
  • An easy-to-use guide based on the specific behavior challenges you are currently facing, with suggestions for data collection and recommended readings
  • A task analysis of the data collection process that breaks down each step for pre-data collection phase, data collection phase, and post-data collection phase
  • A wealth of strategies to use to address problem behavior before they occur
  • An entire section devoted to BCBA Supervision that not only aligns with Task List 5 but also contains lesson plans and rubrics for assessing supervisees

We hope that by making data collection methods more accessible, we can motivate you to appreciate tools for data collection as much as we do!

About the Author

Sam Blanco, PhD, LBA, BCBA, is an ABA provider for students ages 3-15 in NYC. Working in education for twelve years with students with Autism Spectrum Disorders and other developmental delays, Sam utilizes strategies for achieving a multitude of academic, behavior, and social goals. She is also an assistant professor in the ABA program at The Sage Colleges.

Focus on Generalization and Maintenance

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On more than one occasion, I’ve been in the situation that a student will only demonstrate a skill in my presence. And I’ve heard from other colleagues that they have had similar experiences. This is highly problematic. When it happens with one of my students, there is only one person I can blame: myself.  A skill that a student can only demonstrate in my presence is a pretty useless skill and does nothing to promote independence.

So what do you do when you find yourself in this situation? You reteach, with a focus on generalization. This means that, from the very beginning, you are teaching with a wide variety of materials, varying your instructions, asking other adults to help teach the skill, and demonstrating its use in a variety of environments. Preparing activities takes more time on the front-end for the teacher, but saves a ton of time later because your student is more likely to actually master the skill. (Generalization, after all, does show true mastery.)

Hopefully, you don’t have to do this, though. Hopefully, you’ve focused on generalization from the first time you taught the skill. You may see generalization built into materials you already use.

Another commonly cited issue teachers of children with autism encounter is failure to maintain a skill. In my mind, generalization and maintenance go hand-in-hand, in that they require you to plan ahead and consider how, when, and where you will practice acquired skills. Here are a few tips that may help you with maintenance of skills:

  1. Create notecards of all mastered skills. During the course of a session, go through the notecards and set aside any missed questions or activities. You might need to do booster sessions on these. (This can also be an opportunity for extending generalization by presenting the questions with different materials, phrases, environments, or people.)
  2. Set an alert on your phone to remind you to do a maintenance test two weeks, four weeks, and eight weeks after the student has mastered the skill.
  3. Create a space on your data sheets for maintenance tasks to help you remember not only to build maintenance into your programs, but also to take data on maintenance.

Considering generalization and maintenance from the outset of any teaching procedure is incredibly important. Often, when working with students with special needs, we are working with students who are already one or more grade levels behind their typically developing peers. Failing to teach generalization and maintenance, then having to reteach, is a waste of your students’ time.

Sam Blanco, PhD, LBA, BCBA is an ABA provider for students ages 3-15 in NYC. Working in education for sixteen years with students with Autism Spectrum Disorders and other developmental delays, Sam utilizes strategies for achieving a multitude of academic, behavior, and social goals. She is also an assistant professor in the ABA program at The Sage Colleges, and she is the Senior Clinical Strategist at Chorus Software Solutions.

A Spotlight On Executive Function in the Early Childhood Classroom

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By: Stephanny Freeman, PhD and Kristen Hayashida, MEd, BCBA

The new year brings opportunities for introducing new ideas and refining existing techniques for young learners. This week, we’re revisiting a blog from our archives that focuses on executive function.

When kindergarten teachers are asked what skills they would like their students to have the beginning of the year, their answers might be surprising!  Parents and caregivers are often concerned with making sure their children can say their ABC’s, count to 10, and know their colors. Some may believe that their children should be reading by the time they start kindergarten.  However, kindergarten teachers often have a different set of priorities, and instead are looking for skills such as:

  • The ability to listen to and follow directions
  • Follow classroom routines
  • Control impulses
  • Resolve a conflict or solve a problem calmly with another child

Kindergarten teachers value these skills because they are critical for school readiness, paving the way for children to be academically and socially successful.  Moreover, children who are behind in these skills can require disproportionate amounts of teachers’ attention, derail classroom activities and routines, and interfere with other children’s learning.

Underlying these school readiness skills are a set of higher order thinking skills collectively referred to as Executive Functions (EFs). EFs are the cognitive control functions that help us inhibit our initial impulses and think before acting.

But while most teachers agree that EF skills are very important, they are not explicitly taught in most early education settings (or at any point in most children’s educational experiences).

What skills are part of executive functioning?

Three key skills are generally agreed upon as the core of EF:

  1. Working memory: holding information in mind to manipulate, work with, or act on at a later time.
  2. Inhibitory control: the ability to regulate one’s attention, behavior, thinking, and emotion particularly in response to distractions or temptations.
  3. Cognitive flexibility: the capacity to shift one’s thinking, such as changing one’s approach to solving a problem if the previous approach is not working or recognizing and responding when the demands of that task have changed.

Seven additional skills are also considered to fall under the umbrella of EF, often relying and building on the three foundational EF skills:

  1. Initiation: the ability to begin a task or activity or to generate ideas independently in order to answer questions, solve problems, or respond to environmental demands.
  2. Fluency: how fluidly one can access and use relevant knowledge or skills.
  3. Planning: the ability to identify and sequence all the different steps needed to achieve a specific goal.
  4. Organization: the capacity to prioritize and make decisions about which tasks to undertake, and the needed resources to complete those tasks.
  5. Problem solving: carrying out the steps to achieve a desired goal, while monitoring progress making necessary adjustments.
  6. Time awareness: part of the broader skill of Time Management, which includes to the ability to anticipate how long tasks might take, to be aware of time constraints, track one’s progress, and adjust one’s behavior in order to complete tasks efficiently.
  7. Emotion regulation: skills including identifying one’s own emotion states and responding appropriately to emotional experiences.

Why do executive function skills matter?

Executive function skills predict a host of short-term and long-term outcomes!

  • They are a stronger predictor of school readiness than IQ.
  • They are also associated with higher achievement in both reading and math throughout children’s schooling.
  • EF skills, when tested in early childhood predict outcomes later in childhood and adolescence, including psychological and physical health.

Because EF skills are so predictive of later outcomes, they are being increasingly recognized as a critically important focus of intervention. 

Early EF training is … an excellent candidate for leveling the playing field and reducing the achievement gap between more- and less-advantaged children.

Diamond and Lee (2011, p. 6)

Can executive function skills improve?

Yes! All young children (typically developing and those with difficulties) can benefit greatly from instruction in EF!  Frequent practice of these skills and gradually raising the difficulty benefits children most in generalization and increasing gains. Practitioners and parents should consider:

  • Providing focused instruction in EF skills.
  • Combining explicit targeted instruction in EF skills with other activities in which they can then apply and practice those skills.
  • Building targeted EF skills into daily routines.
  • Providing multiple opportunities every day, particularly for children with disabilities, to test out and practice EF skills.

Most experts consider the development of self-regulation skills, of which executive functions are the crown jewel, to be the most important objective of high quality preschool—to help children focus attention, be emotionally expressive, not be impulsive, and to engage in purposeful and meaningful interactions with caregivers and other children.

Blair (2017, p.4)

About The Authors

Dr. Stephanny Freeman is a clinical professor at UCLA, a licensed clinical psychologist, and Co-Directs the Early Childhood Partial Hospitalization Program (ECPHP).  For 20 years, she has educated children with ASD and other exceptionalities as a teacher, studied interventions for social emotional development, and designed curriculum and behavior plans in school and clinic settings.

Kristen Hayashida is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst at the UCLA Early Childhood Partial Hospitalization Program (ECPHP).  For the last 10 years she has served as a therapist, researcher and educator of children and families living with autism spectrum disorder through the treatment of problem behavior.

How do you figure out what motivates your students?

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This ASAT feature comes to us from Niall Toner, MA, BCBA of the New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities. To learn more about ASAT, please visit their website at www.asatonline.org. You can also sign up for ASAT’s free newsletter, Science in Autism Treatment, and like them on Facebook!

I am a special education teacher working with students with autism. At times I find it difficult to figure out what motivates my students and what they’re interested in. Can you make some suggestions about the best way to do this?

This is an excellent question and one that highlights a challenge often experienced not only by teachers but also by family members of individuals with autism. We know that the interests and preferences of individuals with and without autism vary significantly over time. Also, we know that effective teaching of skills and behavior change are predicated upon the timely use of powerful reinforcement (i.e., positive consequences of skilled behavior that motivate and strengthen that behavior). As discussed below, identifying an individual’s preferences is a critical first step in teaching new skills because these preferences often lead to the identification of powerful reinforcers; but how we do this can be easier said than done, especially when the learner has a limited communication repertoire or very individualized interests. The best way to identify preferences is through ongoing preference assessments.

The value of preference assessments

Since many individuals with autism may have difficulty identifying and communicating their preferences directly, we must consider alternative methods of obtaining this information. At the onset, it is important to keep in mind that what may be rewarding or reinforcing for one individual may not be for another. For example, one child may enjoy bubble play, crackers or a particular cause-and-effect toy while a classmate may find one or more of these uninteresting or even unpleasant. Furthermore, an individual’s preferences change across time. For example, an individual may have demonstrated little use for music at age 11, but she may demonstrate a keen interest in music at age 13.

Preference assessments provide a systematic, data-based approach to evaluating a host of potential interests (e.g., food, toys, activities) for an individual. Although preference assessments do require time and effort up front, their use can decrease the time and energy, required to change behavior in the long run. Research indicates that when caregivers use a presumed preference that, in fact, is not the learner’s actual preference, valuable time, energy and resources are lost (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2006).

Types of Preference Assessments

Preference assessment can be conducted in three distinct ways: (1) Interviews and Formal Surveys; (2) Direct observation; and (3) Systematic assessment.

Interviews are a straightforward technique that can be used to gather information quickly. They involve obtaining information from the individual’s parents, siblings, friends, and teachers (and
from the individual, if communicative) by asking both open-ended and comparison questions. Examples of open-ended questions include: “What does he like to do?” “What are his favorite foods?” and “Where does he like to go when he has free time?” Comparison questions might include: “Which does he like better, cookies or crackers?” and “What would he rather do, go for a walk or eat chips?” Resultant information is then compiled in a list and identified items and activities can be piloted out as possible reinforcers.

Formal surveys can also be used to guide these discussions. One widely used survey is the Reinforcement Assessment for Individuals with Severe Disabilities (RAISD; Fisher, Piazza, Bowman, & Amari, 1996). This interview-based survey gathers information about potential reinforcers across a variety of domains (e.g., leisure, food, sounds, smells), and ranks them in order of preference. It should be noted that, although simple and time-efficient, using interviews alone can result in incomplete or inaccurate information. In fact, some studies have shown that, for the same individual, staff interviews did not reveal the same information as using a survey (Parsons & Reid, 1990; Winsor, Piche, & Locke, 1994).

Direct observation involves giving the individual free access to items and/or activities that he or she may like (presumed preferences) and recording the amount of time the individual engages with them. The more time spent with an item or activity, the stronger the presumed preference. In addition, positive affect while engaged with these items and activities could be noted (e.g., smiling, laughing). During these observations, no demands or restrictions are placed on the individual, and the items are never removed. These direct observations can be conducted in an environment enriched with many of the person’s preferred items or in a naturalistic environment such as the person’s classroom or home. Data are recorded over multiple days, and the total time spent on each object or activity will reveal the presumed strongest preferences. Direct observation usually results in more accurate information than interviews but also requires more time and effort.

Systematic assessment involves presenting objects and activities to the individual in a preplanned order to reveal a hierarchy or ranking of preferences. This method requires the most effort, but it is the most accurate. There are many different preference assessments methods, all of which fall into one of the following formats: single item, paired items, and multiple items (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2006).

Single item preference assessment (also known as “successive choice”) is the quickest, easiest method. Objects and activities are presented one at a time and each item is presented several times in a random order. After each presentation, data are recorded on duration of engagement with each object or activity.

Paired method or “forced-choice” (Fisher et al., 1992) involves the simultaneous presentation of two items or activities at the same time. All items are paired systematically with every other item in a random order. For each pair of items, the individual is asked to choose one. Since all objects and activities have to be paired together, this method takes significantly longer than the single-item method but will rank in order the strongest to weakest preferences. Researchers found that the paired method was more accurate than the single item method (Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata & Page, 1985; Paclawskyj & Vollmer, 1995).

The multiple-choice method is an extension of the paired method (DeLeon & Iwata, 1996). Instead of having two items to choose from, there are three or more choices presented at the same time. There are two variations to this method: with and without replacement. In the multiple choice with replacement method, when an object is selected, all other objects are replaced in the next trial. For example, if the individual is given a choice of cookies, crackers, and chips, and he chooses cookies, the cookies will be available for the next trial, but the crackers and chips are replaced with new items. In the without replacement method, the cookies would not be replaced and the choice would only be between the crackers and chips. No new items would be available.

A few final recommendations

When conducting preference assessments, consider testing leisure items/activities and food assessments separately because food tends to motivate individuals more than toys and other leisure items (Bojak & Carr, 1999; DeLeon, Iwata, & Roscoe, 1997). Also, be sure to assess preferences early and often. Preference assessments should be conducted prior to starting any new intervention or behavior change program. And remember that preferences change over time and require continuous exploration. Therefore, assessments should be updated monthly or whenever an individual appears tired of or bored with the preferred items. Keep in mind too, that the identification of one type of preference may provide ideas for other potential reinforcers. For example, if an individual loves a certain type of crunchy cereal, he/she may like other cereals or crunchy snacks. Or if an individual enjoys coloring with crayons, consider exploring whether he/she may enjoy coloring with markers or using finger paints.

Finally, when selecting a preference assessment method, a practitioner or parent should consider the individual’s communication level, the amount of time available for the assessment, and the types of preferred items that will be available. Taken together, these preference assessment methods can provide the valuable information necessary to help motivate and promote behavior change in individuals with autism.

References

Bojak, S. L., & Carr, J. E. (1999). On the displacement of leisure items by food during multiple stimulus preference assessments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 515-518.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward W. L. (2006). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evaluation of multiple-stimulus presentation format for assessing reinforcer preferences.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 519-533.

DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., & Roscoe, E. M. (1997). Displacement of leisure reinforcers by food during preference assessments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 475-484.

Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., & Amari, A. (1996). Integrating caregiver report with a systematic choice assessment. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 101, 15-25.

Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin, I. (1992). A comparison of two approaches for identifying reinforcers for persons with severe to profound disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 491-498.

Pace, G. M., Ivancic, M. T., Edwards, G. L., Iwata, B. A., & Page, T. J. (1985). Assessment of stimulus preference and reinforcer value with profoundly retarded individuals. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 249-255.

Paclawskyj, T. R., & Vollmer, T. R. (1995). Reinforcer assessment for children with developmental disabilities and visual impairments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 219-224.

Parsons, M. B., & Reid, D. H. (1990). Assessing food preferences among persons with profound mental retardation: Providing opportunities to make choices. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 183-195.

Windsor, J., Piche, L. M., & Locke, P. A. (1994). Preference testing: A comparison of two presentation methods. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15, 439-455.

About The Author

Niall Toner MA, BCBA, LBA is a licensed behavior analyst and board certified behavior analyst with over 10 years experience working in the fields of applied behavior analysis and developmental disabilities. Niall is currently the Clinical Director for Lifestyles for the Disabled. Prior to the position he served as a consultant to various organizations including the New York City Department of Education. He also held the position of Assistant Director at the Eden II Programs. Niall has presented locally, nationally and internationally. His interests are Preference Assessments and Functional Analysis, which he presents and publishes.

Originally reposted to Different Roads to Learning on September 28, 2017

Back to School!  Using Behavioral Strategies to Support Academic Success

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By Dana Reinecke, Ph.D., BCBA-D

Back to school is an exciting time for students and teachers, but those with learning differences might find it stressful to start a new school year with new faces, rules, and expectations.  Fortunately, there are behavioral support strategies that can help to smooth the way for a fun, productive year of learning.  Following are some research-based methods to consider.

  • Choice

One of the easiest ways to help students to succeed in school is to offer choices!  Dunlap at el. (1994) found that students were more engaged in tasks and less disruptive when offered choices of activities.  Giving students choices of activities that all achieve the same learning objective is a great way to facilitate engagement and ownership of task outcomes.  Students who can pick how they learn something may be more enthusiastic about learning overall.

  • Momentum

Another great way to get compliance with task demands is to use the strategy of momentum.  This involves asking the student to do tasks that he is likely to comply with, before asking him to do things that are harder.  For example, a teacher might present a coloring activity to a student who likes to color, and then praise him for completing that activity.  The next activity could then be something a little harder and less preferred, like spelling, but now the student has a history of reinforcement for compliance and so is more likely to continue to comply.  Lipshultz and Wilder (2017) offer a review of the recent research in this area.

  • Task Distribution

Sometimes stretching learning out over multiple sessions and across days can be helpful.  Some research shows that distributed learning, where students are given instruction on the same skill for several days, is more efficient and effective than massed learning, where students are given lengthy instruction on the same skill all at once (e.g., Haq et al., 2015).  For students who struggle in a particular area, consider shorter, more frequent opportunities to practice and learn. 

Given thoughtful supports and reasonable, meaningful accommodations, students with learning challenges can be successful and happy in school.  Adding some strategies like the ones described here can make for a fun and productive year!

References

Dunlap, G., DePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright,S., White, R., & Gomez, A. (1994). Choice making to promote adaptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challenges.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505–518.

Haq, S. S., Kodak, T., Kurtz-Nelson, E., Porritt, M., Rush, K., & Cariveau, T. (2015).  Comparing the effects of massed and distributed practice on skill acquisition for children with autism.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 454–459.

Lipschultz, J. & Wilder, D. A. (2017).  Recent research on the high-probability instructional sequence:  A brief review.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50, 424–428.

About The Author

Dana Reinecke, Ph.D., BCBA-D is a New York State Licensed Psychologist and Licensed Behavior Analyst (LBA).   Dana is an Assistant Program Director in the Applied Behavior Analysis department at Capella University, overseeing the PhD in Behavior Analysis program and mentoring doctoral learners.  She is also co-owner of SupervisorABA, an online platform for BACB supervision curriculum and documentation.  Dana has provided training and consultation to school districts, private schools, agencies, and families for individuals with disabilities. She has published her research in peer-reviewed journals, written chapters in published books, and co-edited books on ABA and autism.  Current areas of research include use of technology to support students with and without disabilities, self-management training of college students with disabilities, and online teaching strategies for effective college and graduate education.  Dana is a Past President of the New York State Association for Behavior Analysis (NYSABA).

Originally published by Different Roads to Learning on September 21, 2017.

Promoting Autism Acceptance and Awareness in School Settings

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This month’s ASAT feature comes to us from Simon Celiberti-Byam and Julia Weiss, High School Externs with the Association for Science in Autism Treatment. To learn more about ASAT, please visit their website at www.asatonline.org. You can also sign up for ASAT’s free newsletter, Science in Autism Treatment, and like them on Facebook!

Increasingly, individuals with autism are included in regular educational settings. This is a huge improvement, as many were formerly taught in segregated settings and had reduced access to social, recreational, and educational activities. Still, these students may have visible and invisible challenges that make their school experience difficult or unpleasant. As peers in these settings, fellow students can do much to improve their experience and to lessen their challenges. As allies, peers can take the time to get to know autistic students, and to understand how to best connect with and support them. It is not just a positive experience for your autistic classmates; getting to know someone with autism expands our understanding of difference, exposes us to their unique qualities, and enriches our lives with friendship.

It is our hope that these reflections and suggestions can raise awareness of autism, increase acceptance of autistic individuals, and make our environments more inclusive and comfortable for all. We want to share some quick advice based on some things we have learned from this writing project about autism awareness and acceptance and from our own experiences getting to know some autistic classmates. There are probably more things, but we are still learning too!

Promoting Awareness

  1. One thing that our parents have taught us over the years is that, “If you know one kid with autism, you really only know one kid with autism.” Even if you know a kid with autism, it does not mean you understand all kids with autism. Kids with autism vary a lot in their abilities, challenges, likes, and dislikes. Don’t ever forget that!
  2. You will see kids with autism in classes throughout the school. Some may be in regular education, some in special education, and some may be in both. Keep in mind that some kids with autism may be in your classes, some may be in school with you but primarily are in special education classes. Still other kids with autism may require a lot more help and attend special schools altogether. There may also be classmates who are autistic, and you and the rest of your class may not know. This is why they say autism falls along a spectrum.
  3. Many kids with autism may express themselves or act in different ways than what you might be used to – and that is ok. You can still adapt and learn strategies to interact with them better. For example, you can avoid things that may upset them, learn more about what they like to talk about, or you can learn to not take things personally if they don’t respond to you when you strike up a conversation.
  4. Some people think it is better to say “kid with autism” than “autistic kid” because when you say it the second way it suggests that being autistic is the most important thing about them because you say it first. Many people with autism prefer to be called autistic and we should respect that preference. The good news is that you can just call your classmate by their first names and leave the differing views to other people to sort out.
  5. It is OK to respectfully ask questions about autism. There is a difference between being nosey and really wanting to understand more, and learn how to be a better friend to a kid with autism.
  6. If you want to learn more about autism or develop a deeper understanding, encourage administrators or teachers to invite a special presenter/speaker who can speak about autism. This could be a person with autism, a family member with autism, or someone working in the field.
  7. Consider holding a fundraiser for an autism organization. Some students in years past have hosted a fundraiser for ASAT. What follows are two examples showcasing a class effort (Calvary Christian School) and an individual’s effort (See page 42 for a story about Vaugh, age 13).

Promoting Acceptance

  1. Be a role model. For kids with autism, you can model what the right thing to do is – from shooting a basket to using better words when expressing yourself, and everything in between.
  2. For the rest of your classmates, don’t forget that you can be a role model of acceptance, patience, and kindness too!
  3. There are many things that kids can do to help classmates with autism feel welcomed in school (like sitting with them during lunch, helping them if they get stuck, or picking them to be on your team in PE). Do those things! Do them often!
  4. Find ways to include autistic classmates in extracurricular activities or outside experiences that match their areas of strength and interest (e.g., a school sport, robotics, or the performing arts). Perhaps they would be more willing to check it out if they had a buddy to help them feel welcomed.
  5. Be patient because it may take kids with autism a little longer to respond.
  6. Taking the time to get to know them is worth it and you will see their gifts and strengths. You may learn that you have a lot of things in common.
  7. Also appreciate the unique qualities of your autistic classmates. They are likely much better than you are at a bunch of things; it is good to notice and appreciate that.
  8. We have learned that kids with autism may be more likely to be teased, harassed, and bullied. If you see something, speak up or say something to a teacher or another adult. We know this can be hard but, in the end, you may be helping the bully learn from his or her mistakes.
  9. There are a couple of initiatives that are occurring nationally that show how to include kids with autism in a fun and meaningful way. Here are a few examples: Best Buddies International,Unified Sports and Lunch Bunch.
    • Best Buddies International is a nonprofit organization committed to creating a global volunteer team that aims to create opportunities for one-on-one friendships, employment, leadership, and inclusive living for those with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Many schools have created opportunities in schools for classmates to come together. This may involve matching up classmates who can then participate in activities inside and/or outside of school.
    • It’s too often that young people with disabilities do not get a chance to play on their school sports teams. More and more U.S. states are adopting the Unified Sports approach that the Special Olympics pioneered. Special Olympics Unified Champion Schools® programming is in more than 8,300 schools across the United States at the time of this article, with a goal of existing in 10,000 schools by 2024.
    • A Lunch Bunch is program where a group of kids come together regularly with one or more classmates with special needs, often over lunch. Simply Special Ed offers some tips on how to start a Lunch Bunch on their website.
  10. If none of these programs exist in your school, perhaps you can be the one to help make it happen! In the meantime, talk to your principal or guidance counselor about how you may be able to help a classmate through reverse mainstreaming. Simply, reverse mainstreaming is a concept where kids can visit the classrooms of kids with special needs and join in on activities (such as playing a game or practicing social skills). There may be a few ways you use these experiences toward your service learning. If not, it would still be a great thing to do!
  11. One final note about promoting acceptance is to simply accept your classmates with autism. It sounds simple, but you do not need to always think of ways to help them to be different, or better, or fit in. Simply accepting them for who they are as you want others to accept you for who you are with all of your skills, deficits, strengths, weaknesses, quirks, interests, etc. is important for all individuals we come into contact with – regardless of whether they have autism or not!

Mahatma Gandhi is quoted as saying, “Be the change you want to see in the world.” We end with this quote to encourage young people to help their schools become a more inclusive and kind setting for students with autism and other special needs. Every small step you take, can go a long way in changing the climate of your school and making school a better experience for classmates with autism.

Citation for this article

Celiberti-Byam, S., & Weiss, J. (2023). Promoting autism acceptance and awareness in school settings. Science in Autism Treatment, 20(4).

About the Authors

Simon Celiberti-Byam and Julia Weiss are High School Externs with the Association for Science in Autism Treatment